دراسة احصائية عن اليتم والشخصيات الخالدة - الصفحة 4



رد: دراسة احصائية عن اليتم والشخصيات الخالدة

23

مارتن لوثر

ولدت في بيت ألماني. والدي هانز لوثر، كان يعمل في المناجم. وكان دخل والدي البسيط يذوب بسرعة في تسديد احتياجات العائلة الأولية. فكنت أساهم في نفقات دراستي بإلقاء الأناشيد والتواشيح الدينية في الطرقات. وكان والدي ينتظر أن أتمم دراستي الجامعية وأتخصص في القانون لكي أحمل عنه عبء العائلة عندما تتقدم به الأيام.
أما عن حالتنا الدينية، كنت أعيش في جيل متدين. ولكن لم يكن تديناً حقيقياً، فكان الله إلهاً مخيفاً مرهباً. كان محاط بالغموض، ولم يكن أحد يجرؤ أن يسأل أو يستفهم عن العلاقة بالله. فالله يقيم في السماء في قداسة لا يمكن أن يدرك، وعلى الأرض كان هناك الشيطان وجنوده يحاولون أن يوقعوا بالناس في الخطية فيحل عليهم غضب الله.

إمرأة لوثر
ولدت كاترينا فون بورا في 29 كانون الثاني عام 1499، وقد أدخلت الدير التابع لراهبات البندكتين عندما كان عمرها خمس سنوات لأن الاعتقاد السائد أن أمها كانت قد توفيت.

إمرأة تعيد الإيمان إلى زوجها
أصابت مارتن لوثر نوبة من الكآبة لم تفارقه عدة أيام بسبب الإجهاد المتواصل، وحين كان الصراع شديدا من أجل الإصلاح. حاولت امرأته كاترينا فون بورا أن تفرّج عنه بتحضيرها الأطباق المفضلة لديه ولكن لم ينفرج من ضيق الغمّ الذي اصابه.
وفي صباح أحد الأيام لبست حلة الحداد السوداء، وعندما حضر زوجها لتناول الفطور ورآها على هذه الحال، قال منذهلاً لا بد من أن عزيزاً قد توفي ولم يدر هو عنه. فأجابته امرأته : بالتأكيد الأمر كذلك. كان الميت أعز ما في الوجود على قلب زوجي، الذي كان يحبه ويلقي كل همّه عليه دائماً . ولكن عندما رأيت الغم والكآبة تستحوذان على زوجي العزيز إلى هذا الحدّ البعيد، أكّدت أنه قد مات. أجل يا مارتن، انه الله. الله مات. فأدرك لوثر أنه كان قد ابتعد عن الله، ولكنه فرح بأن امرأته التي كانت تفهمه أرجعته الى إيمانه وثقته بالله، فأخذ يردد لها وهو يضمها إلى صدره شاكراً :كلا وألف كلاّ، إنه لم يمت، وإنه لن يموت أبداً.
أما مرجريت زيكلر فكانت هي أيضا سيدة مجتهدة عاملة نشيطة. ولقد رسم كراناش (Cranach) الرسام المعاصر لها صورة تعبر عن حيرتها وقوتها ونشاطها... كما انها كانت أيضا سيدة فاضلة تقية. ولذلك فان كثيرات من جيرانها اتخذنها مثالا لهن الا ان تقواها قد صبغت وتأثرت عميقا بالخرافات والعقائد التي انتشرت في عصرها. فكانت تؤمن كما كان يؤمن الكثيرون من أبناء عصرها بالقوات الشيطانية والحسد (وتأثير العين). كما انها كانت تعتقد ان الأرواح الشريرة تسكن الأماكن المظلمة والبرك والمستنقعات[وكانت تخشى من السحر وسلطانه حتى انها نسبت موت ابنها الثاني إلى سحر جارة من جيرانها؟!!!
ومما لا شك فيه ان قسوة والديه في الطريقة التي اتبعاها لتهذيبه وتعليمه تركت انطباعات كثيرة وتأثيرات نفسية عميقة في شخصية مارتن لوثر مرهف الحس، ورقيق الشعور.
بل دفعت به أيضا إلى نوع من الانطوائية.

ولأجل هذا كتب فيما بعد يقول: (كان والدي في غاية القساوة معي، الامر الذي خلق مني إنسانا خجولا ولقد كانت قسوتها عاملا دفعني إلى الالتجاء إلى الدير لأصبح راهبا)
اان قسوة والدي مارتن لوثر في تربيته. ربما جعلته يفكر في الرهبنة هربا منهما الا انها لم تكن العامل الأساسي والوحيد الذي زج به إلى الدير وسوف نتعرض لهذه النقطة فيما بعد.

مارتن في مدرسة مجد بورج (Magde Bourg)
لقد قرر الأب الطموح يوحنا لوثر ان يواصل ابنه دراساته، فأرسله لذلك إلى مدرسة اشتهرت في المنطقة بكفاءة معلميها وتقوى الذي يقومون بإدارتها: وهي مدرسة الإخوة الفرنسيسكان* في مجد بورج. إلى هذه المدرسة جاء مارتن من مانسفلد مع صديق له ميسور الحال يدعى يوحنا رينيك (Jean Reineke) لكي يواصلا دراستهما الثانوية.

كان مارتن في الرابعة عشرة عندما التحق بهذه المدرسة. ومع انه لم يمكث في هذه المدينة الا عدة شهور، لأنه أصيب بمرض أضطره للعودة إلى مانسفلد، الا ان إقامته في هذه المدرسة كان لها تأثير عميق جدا على حياته ومستقبله فبالرغم انه لم يذكرها الا مرة واحدة في كتاباته الا ان الأحداث التي وقعت فيها، لعبت دورا هاما جدا في حياته الروحية ونذكر منها:
1- كان الامر الأول الذي أثر في نفس الشاب هذا هو الحياة في المدرسة نفسها. كان الإخوة الفرنسيسكان يشرفون على إدارتها وعلى التعليم فيها. ولقد اتصفت هذه الجماعة بروح التقشف والزهد والاتضاع والاماتات كما كان القديس فرنسيس الاسيزي. ولذلك فقد حاول بكل الوسائل غرس وتنمية هذه الروح في التلاميذ. ولكي يدربوهم على ممارسة هذه التمرين العملي الصعب، فقد طلبوا منهم ان يتسولوا في الشوارع طالبين صدقة من الناس لذلك فانه من الخطأ إذن ان نقول ان مارتن كان يتسول لفقره، وسوف نرجع إلى هذه النقطة فيما بعد.
2- كان الامر الثاني الذي أثر في حياة مارتن وتفكيره هو تعاليم مدرسية الإخوة الفرنسيسكان عن حياة الرهبنة. ولقد انتشرت في هذه الأيام فكرة ان الرهبنة وسيلة من وسائل الأكيدة على الحياة الأبدية والهروب من غضب الله.
3- اما الحال الثالث الذي ترك في نفس ذلك الشاب المرهف الإحساس والشعور تأثيرا عميقا لا يمكن للأيام ان تلاشيه هو صورة وليم، احد الأمراء والأغنياء من بلدة أنهالت (Anhalt) الذي ترك العلم وكل أمجاده وجاء ليصبح راهبا ويعيش في الدير. وكان يجول في شوارع المدينة طالبا إحسان المحسنين. ولقد ظهرت عظامه تحت ثيابه لكثرة ما كان يعاني من الأعمال البدنية المتعبة وإذلال جسده وقهره. ويقول مارتن في وصفه لهذا الأمير: (لقد رايته بعيني يحمل كيسا على ظهره كحمار) ويقال ان هذا الأمير كان يمارس هذه الأعمال التقوية وتعذيب جسده بهذه الطريقة لكي يكفر عن ذنوب أبيه السالفة ولكي يحصل هو نفسه على الحياة الأبدية.
4- حدث رابع مر به لوثر في هذه المدرسة: فلقد رأى لأول مرة كما يقال- نسخة من الكتاب المقدس، وعندما فتحه عن طريق الصدفة، وجد قصة الصبي صموئيل، فألتهمها التهاما ومنذ هذه اللحظة وهو يتوق شوقا لاقتناء هذا الكتاب العجيب.
5- لقد مر الشاب مارتن بهذه الاختبارات في فترة قصيرة جدا لا تتعدى سبعة شهور. وقبل ان ينهي السنة الدراسية أصيب بمرض ورجع إلى مانسفلد للاستشفاء والعلاج وسط العائلة. وبينما كان على فراش المرض، أصيب أيضا أكير مانسفلد بمرض خطير جدا وكان يتوقع هو وكل مدينته موته القريب. ولذلك فقد أعلن ندمه على كل خطاياه، كما انه كان يقوم بأعمال صالحة كثيرة لكي يكفر عن ذنوبه ولكي ينال بأعماله الصالحة كما كان يعتقد، رضا ربه.

لعبت كل هذه الأحداث دورا هاما وكبير في حياة مارتن الروحية وفي مستقبله أيضا. كانت هذه الأحداث أو بعضها سببا في مرضه هذا؟ لا نعلم بالضبط، ولكننا نعتقد ان هذه الأحداث التي حدثت في فترة قصيرة كانت من الأسباب الهامة جدا التي دفعت مارتن إلى التفكير العميق في حياته الروحية وخاصة في مشكلة الموت والتبرير.

فان كان مارتن قد تألم كثيرا أثناء هذه التمارين الموسيقية والغناء في الشوارع، الا ان هذه كانت فرصة ذهبية فعن طريقها تعرف على عائلة كريمة النفس نبيلة الأخلاق ولقد ظل كل حياته مرتبطا بها ومحتفظا ومعتزا بذكرياتها العطرة هذه العائلة هي عائلة كونز كوتا وزوجته أورسول (Kunz Cotta Et Vrsdle) ويبدو ان هذه العائلة سمعته يرنم في الكنيسة، فدعته لتناول الطعام، وعندئذ بدأت روابط المحبة تتعمق، فأصبح مارتن كواحد من العائلة. ولقد كانت هذه السنوات التي قضاها مارتن تحت سقف هذا المنزل سنوات مشرقة شعر فيها بالسرور والارتياح والسعادة النفسية.

ان اختباراته في مدينة مجدبورج في الماضي (أنظر هذا الكتاب 34-36) أثارت في نفسه تسأولات كثيرة وعديدة فيما يختص بالموت وموقفه منه.

لقد لاحقته فكرة الموت أينما حل وسيطرت على شعوره وضميره أينما وجد.
والذي زاد الامر سوءا ان مارتن قد مر أيضا في أثناء دراساته في جامعة أرفورت ببعض الأحداث المؤلمة المحزنة. وكان أولها موت واحد من أصدقائه بمرض خطير، ثم اغتيال صديق آخر يدعى ألكسيس في ظروف غامضة.

لقد ترك هذا الحادثان في نفس مارتن تأثيرا عميقا مما دفعه إلى ان يتساءل من جديد قائلا: ما مصيري امام الله لو كنت واحدا من هذين الصديقين اللذين طواهما الردى؟..
اما الحادث الثاني فقد لمسه بطريقة مباشرة وشخصية. ففي يوم الثلاثاء التالي لعيد القيامة سنة 1503 كان في طريقه مع صديق له إلى بيت والديه في مانسفلد وظهرت فجأة على الطريق أمامه حفرة حاول ان يتخطاها، ولكنه سقط على صخرة وجرح جرحا عميقا جدا في فخذه. وأسرع صديقه للبحث عن أقرب قرية لطلب المساعدة. وبينما كان مارتن مضرجا في دمائه رفع صلاة حارة للعذراء مريم ثم جاء الصديق، وحمل مارتن ورجع به إلى أرفورت. وفي نفس الليلة أصيب بنزيف فقد كمية كبيرة من الدم. في هذه اللحظة المخيفة المرعبة رفع مارتن مرة أخرى صلاة حارة إلى العذراء مريم لأنه كان يفضل ان يصلي لها لأنها لم تكن تثير في نفسه الخوف والرعب اللذين يشعر بهما امام الله أو امام يسوع ولقد قال عن هذه الحادثة (شعرت باني سأموت متوكئا على مريم).
فان كان مارتن قد تأثر بكل الأحداث التي مر بها سابقا والتي تحدثنا عنها وهي: مقابلته مع الكتاب المقدس، ورؤيته للأمير المتسول، موت بعض أصدقائه في ظروف مؤلمة، وباء الطاعون الذي كان يحصد الناس حصدا.. الخ.. فكل هذه الخطوب القاسية تركت تأثيرها العميق في نفس مارتن . ولكن على ما يبدو فان حادثة الخنجر كانت أقوى وأشد الأحداث في تأثيرها على نفس الشاب الجامعي لأنها اخترقت جسده وروحه. ولذلك فان من المحتمل ان يكون قد اعتبرها نداء مباشرا له من الله.
اما الحادثة الثالثة فقد وقعت في 2يوليو 1505 وهو في طريقه في مدينة مانسفلد إلى أرفورت بينما كان يعبر غابة ستوترنهايم (Stotternheim) حيث اشتدت الزوابع وقصفت العواصف بشدة. وانتشر البرق والرعد في جلد السماء الملبدة بالغيوم السوداء. وفي وسط هذا الجو المظلم المخيف وفي وسط الغابة إذا بصاعقة هائلة تقتلع شجرة وتلقي بها عند قدميه وعندئذ ارتمى على الأرض وشعر انه في لحظاته الأخيرة وان الموت ليس عنه ببعيد وعندئذ صرخ بدون تفكير طالبا النجدة والخلاص من القديسة حنه قائلا: (يا قديسة حنه أنقذيني سأكون راهبا بقية حياتي)*
ويبدو ان مارتن شعر في هذه المرة أيضا ان صوت الله كان يدعوه.

لقد عاش مارتن طفولته في جو يسيطر عليه الخوف والاضطراب والقلق: فكان والداه قاسيان في معاملتهم له وانتشار وباء الطاعون قد زاد خوفه وقلقه واضطرابه من الموت وكذلك أيضا الاحداث التي مر بها هذا الشاب الرقيق الإحساس رسمت امام عينيه صورتين لم يستطع الفرار منهما: صورة الله القاضي المخيف المرعب، ثم مصيره بعد الموت.

ومع ان مارتن كان أسير هذه الأفكار الخاصة بالموت الا انه لم ييأس من الحياة، ولم تستطع هذه الأفكار ان تقوده إلى أي نوع من الأمراض النفسية كما ادعى البعض .

كان يوحنا لوثر ثائرا وغاضبا على ابنه ولم يرد ان يغفر له هذا الخطأ ولكن امام مرض الطاعون الذي طوى اثنين من أولاده في هذه الفترة وامام الإشاعات التي انتشرت بان يوحنا لوثر نفسه مريض رق قلبه وترأف على ابنه مارتن. فمع انه لم يغفر له كل المغفرة الا انه كف على الأقل عن مهاجمته.

صفاته حسب اتباعه :
لوثيروس هبة منحت للإنسانية وأعظم مفكر بين فلاسفة الأرض وعظمائها. أين الملوك والأمراء. أين الشعراء والخطباء. أين الفقهاء والفصحاء من لوثيروس؟
فهو الأستاذ الشهير. والكاتب التحرير. والخطيب القدير. والموسيقي الساحر. واللاهوتي الفريد. عجيب في صراحته وحرية ضميره وجسارته وثباته. ولولا ذلك لما استطاع تعليق الخمس والتسعين قضية على باب الكنيسة الباقية إلى هذا اليوم.
جدير به أن يدعى نبي القرن السادس عشر إذ ينطبق بالحق ولا يبالي بتلك المحكمة التي تألبت عليه. ولم يقف إنسان قط وقفته في محضر جماعة كهذه.

http://www.lutherinarabic.org/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09438b.htm

- هذا الرجل مسكون بالموت. وقد كان أسير للأفكار المتعلقة بالموت.
- طفولة قاسية يصفها على أنها اقرب إلى جهنم.
- عاش بعيدا عن العائلة في مدرسة الدير.
- موت اثنين من اصدقا وه.
- كان خجولا في طفولته.
- أصيب بالكآبة في وقت لاحق.
- موت اثنين من إخوته بالطاعون.
- اقترابه من الموت.
- لا توجد معلومات عن والدته والاغلب انها ماتت وهو صغير.
وعلى الرغم انه يبدوا عاش حياة اقرب إلى الموت سنعتبره لغاية هذه الدراسة.

مجهول.

يتبع ،،،

08-05-2010, 09:34 PM

المشاركة 32

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا



رد: دراسة احصائية عن اليتم والشخصيات الخالدة

نيكولاس كوبرنيكس

من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة

نيكولاس كوبرنيكوس (تورون، 19 فبراير 1473 – فرومبورك، 24 مايو 1543) كان فلكياً بولندياً ، يُعتبر أول من صاغ نظرية مركزية الشمس وكون الأرض جرماً يدور في فلكها، في كتابه في ثورات الأجواء السماوية،.
كان أحد أعظم علماء عصره، عالماً رياضياتياً و فلكياً و قانونياً و طبيباً و إدارياً و دبلوماسياً و جندياً.
و لمسئولياته الجـِسـَام اعتبر الفلك بمثابة الهواية ، لكنه مع ذلك صاغ إحدى أهم النظريات في التاريخ، مـُحدثاً ثورة في علم الفلك، وبالتالي في العلم المعاصر، مشجعاً العلماء والباحثين على تحدي القوانين السائدة، وتقديم العلم على العقائد الدوغمائية
سيرة ذاتية
ولد ميكواي كوبيرنيك (نيكولاس كوبيرنيكوس) عام [[1473في أسرة ثرية بمدينة تورون ، كان أبوه رجل أعمال ناجح يتاجر في السنترال ومواطناً مُحترماً في ميت خاقان ، مات و نيكولاس في العاشرة من عمره، لتـُربيه أمه باربرا واتزنرود وخاله ووكاش فاتسينرود الذي كان أسقفاً ثم كبيراً لأساقفة مقاطعة فارمينسكي مع أشقائه الثلاثة .كان له أخ واحد هو أندرياس الذي أصبح قساً، وأختان: باربرا وأصبحت راهبة بندكتية، وكاثرينا التي تزوجت رجل أعمال ومستشاراً مدنياً.
وبفضل خاله بدأ ميكواي دراسته في الأكاديمية الملكية (حاليا جامعة ياغيلونسكي) وهي جامعة معروفة في بولندا حيث يُعتقد أن اهتمامه بالفلك بدأ هناك على يد أستاذه ألبرت برودزويسكي . كان تعليم ميكواي كوبيرنيك شاملا ، فقد درس القانون في جامعة بولونيا الإيطالية ، والطب في جامعة بادوفا وكذلك درس القانون الكنسي والتي أنهاها بالحصول على لقب الدكتوراه في القانون الكنسي في فيرارا.
درس كوبيرنيك العلوم الإنسانية والرياضية في الأكاديمية الملكية ، وآنذاك ولأول مرة تعرف على علم الفلك. بعد ذلك زادت اهتماماته بهذا العلم تحت رعاية الفلكي المعروف دومينيك م. ن من فيرارا. وعليه فقد قام بأعمال الرصد الفلكي ومراقبة الكواكب والنجوم في إيطاليا وباكتشاف ظاهرة كسوف النجم الدبران، الأمر الذي أكد له اقتناعه بالشك في حركة الأجرام السماوية التي كانت سائدة آنذاك . في عام 1510 وكمختص بالقانون الكنسي استقر في في مدينة فيرمبورك(بالالمانية فراوينبورج) وهو الاسم المقتبس من تسمية مريم العذراء المقدسة، وهناك اشترى بيتا لسكناه والذي كان مجهزا لأعمال الرصد الفلكي ومراقبة الكواكب في السماء. بالإضافة إلى الدراسات الفلكية كان كوبيرنك أيضا يمارس الطب(كان طبيبا وأسقفا لمقاطعة فارمينسكي) كما مارس الاقتصاد أيضا (حيث قام بوضع مشروع لإصلاح العملة) كما قام بوضع خارطة لمملكة بولندا وليتوانيا، وخلال الحرب التي اندلعت بين بولندا والفرسان الصليبيين قام بالدفاع عن قصر اولشتين. كما عطلت التزامات الكثيرة ميكواي كوبيرنيك عن اجراء الكثير من أعمال الرصد الفلكي والأبحاث الفلكية .
أنفق ميكواي كوبيرنيك 20 عاما من العمل على نظرية مركزية الشمس ، وكان عمله الأساسي تحت عنوان" عن دوران الأجرام السماوية" وقد انتهى من هذا العمل في عام 1539، وقد ظهر عمله هذا لأول مرة في عام 1543 في مدينة فيرمبورك قبل وفاته بعدة سنوات.
ان الثورة العلمية التي أحدثها كوبيرنيك تقوم على نقض مفهوم النظرية التاريخية القائمة وهي نظرية مركزية الأرض، وهي النظرية القائلة بأن الأرض هي مركز الكون (المجموعة الشمسية ) وأن كل الكواكب تدور في فلكها، وكانت هذه النظرية قائمة على ملاحظات الإنسان بأن الشمس شكليا هي التي تدور حول الأرض وتبدأ دورتها من الشرق إلى الغرب، وقد أسس لهذه النظرية العالم اليوناني بطليموس. كان كوبيرنيك هو أول من عمل في هذا الوقت المعاصر على نموذج مركزية الشمس في المجموعة الشمسية. وقد أسس نظريته على ما كان معروفا من حركة الكواكب وبفضل الحسابات الجديدة التي قام بإجرائها ومراقباته الفلكية تأسست نظريته على عنصرين هامين هما:
تدور الكوكب في فلك حول الشمس
الأرض واحدة من هذه الكواكب وتدور حول محورها.
كانت هذه النظرية أصبحت هامة للغاية ليس فقط لأنها أساس لعلم جديد بل حطمت بعض الأفكار التي كانت سائدة ومحاولة للوقوف ضد الأفكار الثابتة التي سائدة في هذا المجال. وممكن القول بأن كوبيرنيك قد ساهم في نشأة علم متحرر من الايدلوجيات والعقائد الدينية، أثرت نظرية كوبيرنيك على نظرة الإنسان بالنسبة لوضع الأرض في هذا الكون.
قام كوبيرنيك بوضع الشكل العام لنظريته في سنة 1510 في عمله تحت عنوان " تعليق صغير" والذي لم ينشر بشكل رسمي. تأسست نظريته وتبلورت بالكامل بعد 15 عاما من هذا الوقت بعد قيامه بعدة أبحاث فلكية. كان عمله الأساسي " عن دوران الأجرام السماوية" المنشور في عام 1543 عبارة عن محاضرة له عن نظرية الفلك والخاصة بدوران الأرض وكواكب أخرى حول الشمس. وقد أسس نظريته على الحسابات الفلكية.
لم يكن كوبيرنيك ميالا لنشر نظريته الجديدة حيث أن هذا يشكك في العقائد الدينية والخاصة بنشأة الكون. تسبب عمله هذا في إثارة العديد من المناقشات الدينية والايدلوجية حيث كانت هذه النظرية تتنافي مع نصوص العهد القديم. وعلى عكس الكنيسة الكاثوليكية التي وضعت هذا الكتاب في قائمة الكتب المحرمة قام مفكرو البروتستانت مثل مارتين لوثر وكالفين بقبول نظريته. بجانب الوسط الديني كان الوسط العلمي أيضا يسوده الارتباك، بعض العلماء المعاصرين لكوبيرنيك رحبوا بحساباته الرياضة التي شملتها نظريته، لكن معظمهم رفضوا النظرية كاملا لنفس الأسباب التي عارضت بها الكنيسة عمله. فقط بعد مائتي انتشرت نظريته وسادت في الأوساط العلمية، وذلك من خلال أعمال كبلر وغاليليو ، أما أبحاث برادلي في بداية القرن 18 فقد اتت بأدلة جديدة على صحة نظرية كوبيرنيك وحركة دوران الأرض حول الشمس.
اساتذة كوبيرنيك من العرب.
واحد من كبار الفلكيين العرب وهو البتاني كان يعتبر علم الفلك من أرقى العلوم، بل ووضعه فوق العلوم الدينية، ان ما وصل اليه العرب في مجال الفلك شيء هام وملموس وأكثر أعمالهم ذات استخدامات عملية مثل تحديد القبلة ومواعيد الصلوات الخمس. بدأت أعمال الرصد الفلكي منذ القرن التاسع الميلادي خاصة في كل من بغداد ودمشق، ولا ينبغي أن ننسي أيضا المساهمة العربية في العلوم الرياضية وإيجاد علم الفلك الرياضي، خاصة في تطور علم حساب المثلثات والجبر والهندسة الفراغية القائمة على حساب المثلثات والتي بدونها لا يتم القيام بالحسابات الفلكية.
بالرغم من أن علماء الفلك العرب لم يبلوروا نظرية فلكية بهذا الشأن حيث انتقدوا نظرية بطليموس في مركزية الأرض، ومن أهم العلماء الذين انتقدوا ذلك ابن الهيثم وابن رشد. ورغما أنهم لم يخرجوا بنظرية موحدة فقد اقترحوا حلول عملية لأفكار بطليموس الخاصة بنشأة الكون.
يشير المؤرخون في كثير من الحالات عن الحلول الرياضية التي قام بها العلماء العرب والمتعلقة خاصة بأعمال الرصد في مراغة والتي قام بها الفلكي نصر الدين الطوسي، حيث ظهرت هذه الحسابات بعد مائتي عام في أعمال ميكواي كوبيرنيك. كذلك فان أعمال ابن الشاطر التي أصبحت بعض نظرياته موجودة لدى كوبيرنيك مثل ما وضعة حول كوكب عطارد والقمر. كما قام كوبيرنيك باستخدام مزدوجية الطوسي، و تشكيل الكواكب المشابه لذلك في الكواكب التي تدور في فلك أكبر من فلك الأرض، كما في نموذج مؤيد الدين الأوردي وقطب الدين الشيرازي.
يعتقد بعض المؤرخين أن كوبيرنيك استخدم النقل التاريخي ولكن ينبغي الاشارة هنا بأن كوبيرنيك لم يعرف العربية وكان بعيدا عن الجو الأكاديمي وينبغي أن نشير إلى أن كوبيرنيك كان يقدر مساهمة العلماء في تطور العلوم والدليل على ذلك أنه في عمله أشار إلى البتاني.

http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%...83%D9%88%D8%B3
http://www.phys4arab.net/vb/showthread.php?t=12468

- مات أبوه وعمره 10 سنوات.

يتيم

08-05-2010, 09:34 PM

المشاركة 33

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا



رد: دراسة احصائية عن اليتم والشخصيات الخالدة

جيمس واط

James Watt

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

James Watt, FRS, FRSE (19 January 1736 – 25 August 1819)[1] was a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer whose improvements to the Newcomen steam engine were fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both the Kingdom of Great Britain and the world

James Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire, a seaport on the Firth of Clyde. His father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, and served as the town's chief baillie, while his mother, Agnes Muirhead, came from a distinguished family and was well educated. Both were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters. Watt's grandfather, Thomas Watt, was a mathematics teacher and baillie to the Baron of Cartsburn.
Watt did not attend school regularly; initially he was mostly schooled at home by his mother but later he attended Greenock grammar school.[2] He exhibited great manual dexterity and an aptitude for mathematics, although Latin and Greek failed to interest him, and he absorbed the legends and lore of the Scottish people.
When he was 18, his mother died and his father's health had begun to fail. Watt travelled to London to study instrument-making for a year, then returned to Scotland – to Glasgow – intent on setting up his own instrument-making business. However, because he had not served at least seven years as an apprentice, the Glasgow Guild of Hammermen (any artisans using hammers) blocked his application, despite there being no other mathematical instrument makers in Scotland.
Watt was saved from this impasse by three professors of the University of Glasgow, who offered him the opportunity to set up a small workshop within the university. It was established in 1758 and one of the professors, the physicist and chemist Joseph Black, became Watt's friend.
In 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret Miller, with whom he had five children, two of whom lived to adulthood. She died in childbirth in 1772. In 1777 he married again, to Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow dye-maker, who survived him. She died in 1832.
Method and personality
Watt was an enthusiastic inventor, with a fertile imagination that sometimes got in the way of finishing his works, because he could always see "just one more improvement". He was skilled with his hands, and was also able to perform systematic scientific measurements that could quantify the improvements he made and produce a greater understanding of the phenomenon he was working with.
Watt was a gentleman, greatly respected by other prominent men of the Industrial Revolution. He was an important member of the Lunar Society, and was a much sought after conversationalist and companion, always interested in expanding his horizons. He was a rather poor businessman, and especially hated bargaining and negotiating terms with those who sought to utilize the steam engine. Until he retired, he was always much concerned about his financial affairs, and was something of a worrier. His personal relationships with his friends and partners were always congenial and long-lasting
James Watt's improvements transformed the Newcomen engine, which had hardly changed for fifty years, and initiated changes in generating and applying power, which transformed the world of work, and were a key innovation of the Industrial Revolution. The importance of the invention can hardly be overstated—it gave us the modern world. A key feature of it was that it brought the engine out of the remote coal fields into factories where many mechanics, engineers, and even tinkerers were exposed to its virtues and limitations. It was a platform for generations of inventors to improve. It was clear to many that higher pressures produced in improved boilers would produce engines having even higher efficiency, and would lead to the revolution in transportation that was soon embodied in the locomotive and steamboat. It made possible the construction of new factories that, since they were not dependent on water power, could work the year round, and could be placed almost anywhere. Work was moved out of the cottages, resulting in economies of scale. Capital could work more efficiently, and manufacturing productivity greatly improved. It made possible the cascade of new sorts of machine tools that could be used to produce better machines, including that most remarkable of all of them, the Watt steam engine. Of Watt, the English Novelist Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) wrote; "To us, the moment 8:17 A.M. means something - something very important, if it happens to be the starting time of our daily train. To our ancestors, such an odd eccentric instant was without significance - did not even exist. In inventing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt

http://level2.phys.strath.ac.uk/Scie...jameswatt.html

- مرض في الطفولة المبكرة منعته من المدارس.

- يتيم الام في الثامنة عشره.
يتيم

08-05-2010, 09:35 PM

المشاركة 34

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا

http://st-takla.org/Saints/Coptic-Or...tory_1396.html
http://www.marnarsay.com/Santas/kastantin.htm



رد: دراسة احصائية عن اليتم والشخصيات الخالدة

قسطنطين الأكبر

(الملك قنسطنطين الكبير)

كان أغلب القادة الكنسيين معجبين بشخصية الإمبراطور قسطنطين الكبير (حوالي 285-337م) وأمه هيلانة الملكة، يتطلعون إليهما كشخصين بارين قاما بدورٍ عظيم في تاريخ الكنيسة الأولى. مع أنه لم ينل العماد إلا في السنة الأخيرة من حياته على يدي الأسقف الأريوسي يوسابيوس النيقوميدي إلا أنه يتحدث عن نفسه كمسيحي غيور، جعل من المسيحية الديانة الرسمية للدولة الرومانية، وأمر بحفظ يوم الأحد، وصادر المعابد الوثننية وحوّل الكثير منها إلى كنائس، وعفا رجال الدين المسيحي من الضرائب، كما تدخّل ? للأسف ? في المشاكل الكنسية. وهو الذي دعا إلى عقد أول مجمع مسكوني في العالم في نيقية عام 325م. عشقه يوسابيوس القيصري، وسجّل لنا تاريخه، كما مدحه المدافع لاكتانتيوس، وقال عنه هوسيوس أسقف كوردونا Hosius of Cordon بأسبانيا أنه صنع عجائب في الكنيسة.

نشأته:
اسم أبيه قسطنطيوس الأول Chlorus Constantius I وأمه هيلانه، وكان أبوه ملكًا على بيزنطة ومكسيميانوس ملكًا على رومه ودقلديانوس على إنطاكية ومصر. وكان قونسطا وثنيًا، إلا أنه كان صالحًا محباً للخير رحومًا شفوقًا. واتفق أنه مضى إلى الرُها وهناك رأى هيلانة وأعجب بها فتزوجها، وكانت مسيحية فحملت منه بقسطنطين هذا. ثم تركها في الرُها وعاد إلى بيزنطية، فولدت قسطنطين وربّته تربية حسنة وأدّبته بكل أدب، وكانت تبث في قلبه الرحمة والشفقة على المسيحيين. ولكنها لم تجسر أن تعمّده ولا تُعلِمَه أنها مسيحية، فكبر وأصبح فارسًا وذهب إلى أبيه الذي فرح به لما رأى فيه الحكمة والمعرفة والفروسية. صار شريكًا في والده في الإمبراطورية.

اتساع مملكته:
يحدثنا يوسابيوس القيصري عن نصراته الفائقة التي بلغت أقاصي المسكونة في ذلك الحين، فبلغ في الغرب بريطانيا وما حولها، وفي الشمال غلب مملكة السكيثيين مع أنها كانت قبائل متوحشة لا يمكن حصر تعدادها، وفي الجنوب بلغ إلى الأثيوبيين والبليميين Blemmyans، وفي الشرق بلغ إلى الهند وما حولها. وقد رحّب الكل به باغتباط، مقدمين له هدايا، طالبين صداقته، وأقاموا تماثيل وصورًا له في بلادهم.

شخصية قسطنطين الشاب:
في شبابه رافق قسطنطين دقلديانوس وغالريوس في بعض الرحلات والحملات. اتسم عن أقرانه بقوة الشخصية وبرز في مواهبه العقلية، كما في قوته البدنية، محبًا للعلم، وكان ذا ذكاء خارق وحكمة إلهية.
حاول دقلديانوس التخلص منه بدافع الحسد والخوف منه، فاتهمه باتهامات أخلاقية، لكنه هرب منه وذهب إلى أبيه. كان والده مشرفًا على الموت عندما وجد قسطنطين قد جاء إليه على غير موعد، فقفز وعانقه بحرارة، وتنازل له عن المُلك ثم أسلم الروح.

ظهور الصليب المقدس:
بعد وفاة أبيه تَسَّلم المملكة ونشر العدل والإنصاف ومنع المظالم، فخضع الكل له وأحبّوه، ووصل عدله إلى سائر البلاد، فأرسل إليه أكابر روما طالبين أن ينقذهم من ظلم مكسيميانوس فزحف بجنده إلى إنقاذهم. وفى أثناء الحرب رأى في السماء في نصف النهار صليبًا مكوّنًا من كواكب مكتوبًا عليه باليونانية الذي تفسيره "بهذا تغلب"، وكان ضياؤه يشع أكثر من نور الشمس، فأراه لوزرائه وكبراء مملكته فقرأوا ما هو مكتوب ولم يًدركوا السبب الموجب لظهوره. وفى تلك الليلة ظهر له ملاك الرب في رؤيا وقال له: "اعمل مثال العلامة التي رأيتها وبها تغلب أعداءك". ففي الصباح جهّز علمًا كبيرًا ورسم عليه علامة الصليب، كما رسمها أيضًا على جميع الأسلحة، واشتبك مع مكسيميانوس في حرب دارت رحاها على الأخير الذي ارتد هاربًا، وعند عبوره جسر نهر التيبر سقط به فهلك هو وأغلب جنوده. ودخل قسطنطين رومه فاستقبله أهلها بالفرح والتهليل، وكان شعراؤها يمدحون الصليب وينعتونه بمخلِّص مدينتهم ثم عيّدوا للصليب سبعة أيام، وأصبح قسطنطين ملكًا على الشرق والغرب.

تكريمه بعد موته:
يرى المؤرخ يوسابيوس أنه لم يوجد ملك قط نال كرامة في أيام ملكه وحتى بعد موته مثل قسطنطين، فإذ أكرم الله أكرمَه الله، فبقي في سلطانه الملكي حتى بعد موته. بعد موته "ضُربت عملة عليها صورته.

Constantine, named Flavius Valerius Constantinus, was born in the Moesian military city of Naissus, Illyricum on the 27th of February of an uncertain year,[26] probably near 272.

His father was Flavius Constantius, a native of Moesia Superior (later Dacia Ripensis). Constantius was a tolerant and politically skilled man. Constantine probably spent little time with his father.[30] Constantius was an officer in the Roman army in 272, part of the Emperor Aurelian's imperial bodyguard. Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum, in 284 or 285.[28] Constantine's mother was Helena, a Bithynian Greek of humble origin. It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_I

- سنة ولادته غير معروفة
- يبدو انه ابن غير شرعي
- عاش بعيدا عن والده والتقاه عند لحظة موته.
- هناك ما يقول انه ولد سنة 288 ووالده مات سنه 305 بعد الميلاد يعني ان عمره حينما مات اباه كان 17 سنه اذا ما اخذ بتاريخ الولادة تلك.
- تاريخ وفاة امه غير معروف.
يتيم حيث عاش بعيد عن الأب ويبدو انه كان ابن غير شرعي.

يتيم

08-05-2010, 09:36 PM

المشاركة 35

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا



رد: دراسة احصائية عن اليتم والشخصيات الخالدة

27

جورج واشنطن

George Washington

George Washington was born into the landed gentry in 1732 at Wakefield Plantation, VA. Until reaching 16 years of age, he lived there and at other plantations along the Potomac and Rappahannock Rivers, including the one that later became known as Mount Vernon. His education was rudimentary, probably being obtained from tutors but possibly also from private schools, and he learned surveying.
After he lost his father when he was 11 years old, his half-brother Lawrence, who had served in the Royal Navy, acted as his mentor. As a result, the youth acquired an interest in pursuing a naval career, but his mother discouraged him from doing so. At the age of 16, in 1748, Washington joined a surveying party sent out to the Shenandoah Valley by Lord Fairfax, a land baron. For the next few years, Washington conducted surveys in Virginia and present West Virginia and gained a lifetime interest in the West. In 1751-52 he also accompanied Lawrence on a visit he made to Barbados, West Indies, for health reasons just before his death.
The next year, Washington began his military career when the royal governor appointed him to an adjutantship in the militia, as a major. That same year, as a gubernatorial emissary, accompanied by a guide, he traveled to Fort Le Boeuf, PA, in the Ohio River Valley, and delivered to French authorities an ultimatum to cease fortification and settlement in English territory. During the trip, he tried to better British relations with various Indian tribes.
In 1754, winning the rank of lieutenant colonel and then colonel in the militia, Washington led a force that sought to challenge French control of the Ohio River Valley, but met defeat at Fort Necessity, PA - an event that helped trigger the French and Indian War (1754-63). Late in 1754, irked by the dilution of his rank because of the pending arrival of British regulars, he resigned his commission. That same year, he leased Mount Vernon, which he was to inherit in 1761.
In 1755 Washington reentered military service with the courtesy title of colonel, as an aide to Gen. Edward Braddock, and barely escaped death when the French defeated the general's forces in the Battle of the Monongahela, PA. As a reward for his bravery, Washington rewon his colonelcy and command of the Virginia militia forces, charged with defending the colony's frontier. Because of the shortage of men and equipment, he found the assignment challenging. Late in 1758 or early in 1759, disillusioned over governmental neglect of the militia and irritated at not rising in rank, he resigned and headed back to Mount Vernon.
Washington then wed Martha Dandridge Custis, a wealthy widow and mother of two children. The marriage produced no offspring, but Washington reared those of his wife as his own. During the period 1759-74, he managed his plantations and sat in the Virginia House of Burgesses. He supported the initial protests against British policies; took an active part in the nonimportation movement in Virginia; and, in time, particularly because of his military experience, became a Whig leader.
By the 1770s, relations of the colony with the mother country had become strained. Measured in his behavior but strongly sympathetic to the Whig position and resentful of British restrictions and commercial exploitation, Washington represented Virginia at the First and Second Continental Congresses. In 1775, after the bloodshed at Lexington and Concord, Congress appointed him as commander in chief of the Continental Army. Overcoming severe obstacles, especially in supply, he eventually fashioned a well-trained and disciplined fighting force.
The strategy Washington evolved consisted of continual harassment of British forces while avoiding general actions. Although his troops yielded much ground and lost a number of battles, they persevered even during the dark winters at Valley Forge, PA, and Morristown, NJ. Finally, with the aid of the French fleet and army, he won a climactic victory at the Battle of Yorktown, VA, in 1781.
During the next 2 years, while still commanding the agitated Continental Army, which was underpaid and poorly supplied, Washington denounced proposals that the military take over the government, including one that planned to appoint him as king, but supported army petitions to the Continental Congress for proper compensation. Once the Treaty of Paris (1783) was signed, he resigned his commission and returned once again to Mount Vernon. His wartime financial sacrifices and long absence, as well as generous loans to friends, had severely impaired his extensive fortune, which consisted mainly of his plantations, slaves, and landholdings in the West. At this point, however, he was to have little time to repair his finances, for his retirement was brief.
Dissatisfied with national progress under the Articles of Confederation, Washington advocated a stronger central government. He hosted the Mount Vernon Conference (1785) at his estate after its initial meetings in Alexandria, though he apparently did not directly participate in the discussions. Despite his sympathy with the goals of the Annapolis Convention (1786), he did not attend. But, the following year, encouraged by many of his friends, he presided over the Constitutional Convention, whose success was immeasurably influenced by his presence and dignity. Following ratification of the new instrument of government in 1788, the electoral college unanimously chose him as the first President.
The next year, after a triumphal journey from Mount Vernon to New York City, Washington took the oath of office at Federal Hall. During his two precedent-setting terms, he governed with dignity as well as restraint. He also provided the stability and authority the emergent nation so sorely needed, gave substance to the Constitution, and reconciled competing factions and divergent policies within the government and his administration. Although not averse to exercising presidential power, he respected the role of Congress and did not infringe upon its prerogatives. He also tried to maintain harmony between his Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, whose differences typified evolving party divisions from which Washington kept aloof.
Yet, usually leaning upon Hamilton for advice, Washington supported his plan for the assumption of state debts, concurred in the constitutionality of the bill establishing the Bank of the United States, and favored enactment of tariffs by Congress to provide federal revenue and protect domestic manufacturers.
Washington took various other steps to strengthen governmental authority, including suppression of the Whisky Rebellion (1794). To unify the country, he toured the Northeast in 1789 and the South in 1791. During his tenure, the government moved from New York to Philadelphia in 1790, he superintended planning for relocation to the District of Columbia, and he laid the cornerstone of the Capitol (1793).
In foreign affairs, despite opposition from the Senate, Washington exerted dominance. He fostered United States interests on the North American continent by treaties with Britain and Spain. Yet, until the nation was stronger, he insisted on the maintenance of neutrality. For example, when the French Revolution created war between France and Britain, he ignored the remonstrances of pro-French Jefferson and pro-English Hamilton.

Washington enjoyed only a few years of retirement at Mount Vernon. Even then, demonstrating his continued willingness to make sacrifices for his country in 1798 when the nation was on the verge of war with France he agreed to command the army, though his services were not ultimately required. He died at the age of 67 in 1799. In his will, he emancipated his slaves.

http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/P/gw1/about/washingt.htm

http://sc94.ameslab.gov/Tour/gwash.html

- هناك الكثير من الغموض عن طفولته.
- يتيم في سن الحادية عشره.
- اعتنى به أخاه الأكبر من أم أخرى (ولذلك كان يكبره بكثير وكفله كأب بديل ) لكنه مات وعمر جورج 18 سنه وكأنه فقد الأب مرتين.

يتيم

08-05-2010, 09:37 PM

المشاركة 36

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا



رد: دراسة احصائية عن اليتم والشخصيات الخالدة

28

مايكل فرادي

Michael Faraday was born on Sept. 22, 1791 in a poor and very religious family in the country village of Newington, Surrey, now a part of South London. His father was a blacksmith who had migrated from the north of England earlier in 1791 to look for work. His mother was a country woman of great calm and wisdom who supported her son emotionally through a difficult childhood. Faraday was one of four children, all of whom were hard put to get enough to eat, since their father was often ill and incapable of working steadily. Faraday later recalled being given one loaf of bread that had to last him for a week. The family belonged to a small Christian sect, called Sandemanians, that provided spiritual sustenance to Faraday throughout his life. It was the single most important influence upon him and strongly affected the way in which he approached and interpreted nature. Faraday himself, shortly after his marriage, at the age of thirty, joined the same sect, to which he adhered till his death. Religion and science he kept strictly apart, believing that the data of science were of an entirely different nature from the direct communications between God and the soul on which his religious faith was based.
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/faraday.htm

Michael Faraday did not directly contribute to mathematics so should not really qualify to have his biography in this archive. However he was such a major figure and his science had such a large impact on the work of those developing mathematical theories that it is proper that he is included. We say more about this below.
Faraday's father, James Faraday, was a blacksmith who came from Yorkshire in the north of England while his mother Margaret Hastwell, also from the north of England, was the daughter of a farmer. Early in 1791 James and Margaret moved to Newington Butts, which was then a village outside London, where James hoped that work was more plentiful. They already had two children, a boy Robert and a girl, before they moved to Newington Butts and Michael was born only a few months after their move.
Work was not easy to find and the family moved again, remaining in or around London. By 1795, when Michael was around five years, the family were living in Jacob's Wells Mews in London. They had rooms over a coachhouse and, by this time, a second daughter had been born. Times were hard particularly since Michael's father had poor health and was not able to provide much for his family.
The family were held closely together by a strong religious faith, being members of the Sandemanians, a form of the Protestant Church which had split from the Church of Scotland.

http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/...s/Faraday.html

Faraday ceased research work in 1855 because of declining mental powers, but he continued as a lecturer until 1861. A series of six children's lectures published in 1860 as The Chemical History of a Candle, has become a classic of science literature.
http://www.theiet.org/about/libarc/a...es/faraday.cfm

من أقواله quotes from him :
• ALL THIS IS A DREAM. Still examine it by a few experiments. Nothing is too wonderful to be true, if it be consistent with the laws of nature; and in such things as these experiment is the best test of such consistency.
• I have far more confidence in the one man who works mentally and bodily at a matter than in the six who merely talk about it — and I therefore hope and am fully persuaded that you are working.
• Nature is our kindest friend and best critic in experimental science if we only allow her intimations to fall unbiassed on our minds. Nothing is so good as an experiment which, whilst it sets an error right, gives us (as a reward for our humility in being reproved) an absolute advancement in knowledge.
• I was at first almost frightened when I saw such mathematical force made to bear upon the subject, and then wondered to see that the subject stood it so well.
• But still try, for who knows what is possible...
• If you would cause your view ... to be acknowledged by scientific men; you would do a great service to science. If you would even get them to say yes or no to your conclusions it would help to clear the future progress. I believe some hesitate because they do not like their thoughts disturbed.
• Among those points of self-education which take up the form of mental discipline, there is one of great importance, and, moreover, difficult to deal with, because it involves an internal conflict, and equally touches our vanity and our ease. It consists in the tendency to deceive ourselves regarding all we wish for, and the necessity of resistance to these desires. It is impossible for any one who has not been constrained, by the course of his occupation and thoughts, to a habit of continual self-correction, to be aware of the amount of error in relation to judgment arising from this tendency. The force of the temptation which urges us to seek for such evidence and appearances as are in favour of our desires, and to disregard those which oppose them, is wonderfully great. In this respect we are all, more or less, active promoters of error. In place of practising wholesome self-abnegation, we ever make the wish the father to the thought: we receive as friendly that which agrees with, we resist with dislike that which opposes us; whereas the very reverse is required by every dictate of common sense.
• There is no more open door by which you can enter into the study of natural philosophy than by considering the physical phenomena of a candle.
• No wonder that my remembrance fails me, for I shall complete my 70 years next Sunday (the 22); — and during these 70 years I have had a happy life; which still remains happy because of hope and content.
• The secret is comprised in three words — Work, finish, publish.
• Speculations? I have none. I am resting on certainties. I know whom I have believed and am persuaded that he is able to keep that which I have committed unto him against that day.
• The important thing is to know how to take all things quietly.
• The lecturer should give the audience full reason to believe that all his powers have been exerted for their pleasure and instruction.
• As when on some secluded branch in forest far and wide sits perched an owl, who, full of self-conceit and self-created wisdom, explains, comments, condemns, ordains and order things not understood, yet full of importance still holds forth to stocks and stones around — so sits and scribbles Mike.
• I shall be with Christ, and that is enough.
• Next Sabbath day (the 22nd) I shall complete my 70th year. I can hardly think of myself so old.

Quotes about him:

Whatever our opinions, they do not alter nor derange the laws of nature.

He hath set his testimony in the heavens.

Underneath his sweetness and gentleness was the heat of a volcano. He was a man of excitable and fiery nature; but through high self-discipline he had converted the fire into a central glow and motive power of life, instead of permitting it to waste itself in useless passion. ... Faraday was not slow to anger, but he completely ruled his own spirit, and thus, though he took no cities, he captivated all hearts.

• Faraday found no conflict between his religious beliefs and his activities as a scientist and philosopher. He viewed his discoveries of nature's laws as part of the continual process of "reading the book of nature", no different in principle from the process of reading the Bible to discover God's laws. A strong sense of the unity of God and nature pervaded Faraday's life and work.

• When his faculties were fading fast, he would sit long at the western window, watching the glories of the sunset; and one day, when his wife drew his attention to a beautiful rainbow that spanned the sky, he looked beyond the falling shower and the many-colored arch, and observed, "He hath set his testimony in the heavens." On August 25, 1867, quietly, almost imperceptively, came the release. There was a philosopher less on earth, and a saint more in heaven.

• As a philosopher, his first great characteristic was the trust which he put in facts. He said of himself, "In early life I was a very lively imaginative person, who could believe in the Arabian Nights as easily as in the Encyclopedia, but facts were important to me, and saved me. I could trust a fact." Over and over again he showed his love of experiments in his writings and lectures: "Without experiment I am nothing." "But still try, for who knows what is possible?" "All our theories are fixed upon uncertain data, and all of them want alteration and support from facts." "One thing, however, is fortunate, which is, that whatever our opinions, they do not alter nor derange the laws of nature."
His second great characteristic was his imagination. It rose sometimes to divination, or scientific second sight, and led him to anticipate results that he or others afterwards proved to be true.

• Faraday is, and must always remain, the father of that enlarged science of electro-magnetism.

• A point highly illustrative of the character of Faraday now comes into view. He gave an account of his discovery of Magneto-electricity in a letter to his friend M. Hachette, of Paris, who communicated the letter to the Academy of Sciences. The letter was translated and published ; and immediately afterwards two distinguished Italian philosophers took up the subject, made numerous experiments, and published their results before the complete memoirs of Faraday had met the public eye. This evidently irritated him. He reprinted the paper of the learned Italians in the Philosophical Magazine accompanied by sharp critical notes from himself. He also wrote a letter dated Dec. 1,1832, to Gay Lussac, who was then one of the editors of the Annales de Chimie in which he analysed the results of the Italian philosophers, pointing out their errors, and' defending himself from what he regarded as imputations on his character. The style of this letter is unexceptionable, for Faraday could not write otherwise than as a gentleman; but the letter shows that had he willed it he could have hit hard. We have heard much of Faraday's gentleness and sweetness and tenderness. It is all true, but it is very incomplete. You cannot resolve a powerful nature into these elements, and Faraday's character would have been less admirable than it was had it not embraced forces and tendencies to which the silky adjectives "gentle" and "tender" would by no means apply. Underneath his sweetness and gentleness was the heat of a volcano. He was a man of excitable and fiery nature; but through high self-discipline he had converted the fire into a central glow and motive power of life, instead of permitting it to waste itself in useless passion. "He that is slow to anger" saith the sage, "is greater than the mighty, and he that ruleth his own spirit than he that taketh a city." Faraday was not slow to anger, but he completely ruled his own spirit, and thus, though he took no cities, he captivated all hearts

- هناك مؤشرات بأن والده كان مريضا في طفولته وقد اضطر للعمل في سن 13 بسبب مرضه.
- لا يوجد معلومات عن الأم.
- يبدو انه عانى من مرض عقلي في الشيخوخة او عل الأقل ضعف في الذاكرة كما هو مشار اليه اعلاه.
- انسان بهذا الغنى والقدرة والعبقرية لا بد ان يكون يتيم ولكننا سنعتبره لإغراض هذه الدراسة مجهول.

مجهول

08-05-2010, 09:37 PM

المشاركة 37

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا



رد: دراسة احصائية عن اليتم والشخصيات الخالدة

29

جيمس كلارك ماكسويل

James Clerk Maxwell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the thirteenth of November in 1831. His original name was James Clerk. "Maxwell" was added after his mother died when James was a mere eight years old.

http://www.studyworld.com/james_clark_maxwell.htm

James Clerk Maxwell (13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a Scottish theoretical physicist and mathematician.

His most important achievement was classical electromagnetic theory, synthesizing all previous unrelated observations, experiments and equations of electricity, magnetism and even optics into a consistent theory. His set of equations—Maxwell's equations—demonstrat ed that electricity, magnetism and even light are all manifestations of the same phenomenon: the electromagnetic field. From that moment on, all other classic laws or equations of these disciplines became simplified cases of Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's work in electromagnetism has been called the "second great unification in physics", after the first one carried out by Isaac Newton.

Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel through space in the form of waves, and at the constant speed of light. Finally, in 1864 Maxwell wrote "A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field", where he first proposed that light was in fact undulations in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. His work in producing a unified model of electromagnetism is considered to be one of the greatest advances in physics.

Maxwell also developed the Maxwell distribution, a statistical means of describing aspects of the kinetic theory of gases. These two discoveries helped usher in the era of modern physics, laying the foundation for future work in such fields as special relativity and quantum mechanics.

Maxwell is also known for creating the first true colour photograph in 1861 and for his foundational work on the rigidity of rod-and-joint frameworks like those in many bridges.

Maxwell is considered by many physicists to be the 19th-century scientist with the greatest influence on 20th-century physics. His contributions to the science are considered by many to be of the same magnitude as those of Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein. In the end of millennium poll, a survey of the 100 most prominent physicists saw Maxwell voted the third greatest physicist of all time, behind only Newton and Einstein. On the centennial of Maxwell's birthday, Einstein himself described Maxwell's work as the "most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton." Einstein kept a photograph of Maxwell on his study wall, alongside pictures of Michael Faraday and Newton.

Early life, 1831–39
James Clerk Maxwell was born on 13 June 1831 at 14 India Street, Edinburgh, to John Clerk Maxwell, an advocate, and Frances Maxwell (née Cay).

Maxwell's father was a man of comfortable means, related to the Clerk family of Penicuik, Midlothian, holders of the baronetcy of Clerk of Penicuik; his brother being the 6th Baronet. He had been born John Clerk, adding the surname Maxwell to his own after he inherited a country estate in Middlebie, Kirkcudbrightshire from connections to the Maxwell family, themselves members of the peerage.
Maxwell's parents did not meet and marry until they were well into their thirties, unusual for the times, and Frances Maxwell was nearly 40 when James was born. They had had one earlier child, a daughter, Elizabeth, who died in infancy. .

The family moved when Maxwell was young to "Glenlair", a house his parents had built on the 1500 acre (6.1 km2) Middlebie estate. All indications suggest that Maxwell had maintained an unquenchable curiosity from an early age. By the age of three, everything that moved, shone, or made a noise drew the question: "what's the go o' that?". In a letter to his sister-in-law Jane Cay in 1834, his father described this innate sense of inquisitiveness:

Education, 1839–47
Recognizing the potential of the young boy, his mother Frances took responsibility for James' early education, which in Victorian era was largely the job of the woman of the house.
She was however taken ill with abdominal cancer, and after an unsuccessful operation, died in December 1839 when Maxwell was only eight.

James' education was then overseen by John Maxwell and his sister-in-law Jane, both of whom played pivotal roles in the life of Maxwell.

His formal schooling began unsuccessfully under the guidance of a sixteen-year old hired tutor. Little is known about the young man John Maxwell hired to instruct his son, except that he treated the younger boy harshly, chiding him for being slow and wayward.

John Maxwell dismissed the tutor in November 1841, and after considerable thought, sent James to the prestigious Edinburgh Academy He lodged during term times at the house of his aunt Isabella; while there his passion for drawing was encouraged by his older cousin Jemima, herself a talented artist.
he ten-year old Maxwell, raised in isolation on his father's countryside estate, did not fit in well at school. The first year had been full, obliging him to join the second year with classmates a year his senior. His mannerisms and Galloway accent struck the other boys as rustic, and arriving on his first day at school wearing home-made shoes and tunic earned him the unkind nickname of "Daftie". Maxwell, however, never seemed to have resented the epithet, bearing it without complaint for many years.Any social isolation at the Academy however ended when he met Lewis Campbell and Peter Guthrie Tait, two boys of a similar age, and themselves to become notable scholars. They would remain lifetime friends.

Maxwell was fascinated by geometry at an early age, rediscovering the regular polyhedra before any formal instruction.

Much of his talent went unnoticed however, and, despite winning the school's scripture biography prize in his second year, his academic work remained unremarkable, until, at the age of 13, he won the school's mathematical medal, and first prizes for English and poetry.For his first scientific work, at the age of only 14, Maxwell wrote a paper describing a mechanical means of drawing mathematical curves with a piece of twine, and the properties of ellipses and curves with more than two foci. His work, "Oval Curves", was presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh by James Forbes, professor of natural philosophy at Edinburgh University, Maxwell deemed too young for the task. The work was not entirely original, Descartes having examined the properties of such multifocal curves in the seventeenth century, though Maxwell had simplified their construction.

Personality
As a great lover of British poetry, Maxwell memorised poems and wrote his own. The best known is Rigid Body Sings, closely based on Comin' Through the Rye by Robert Burns, which he apparently used to sing while accompanying himself on a guitar. It has the immortal opening lines.
Gin a body meet a body
Flyin' through the air.
Gin a body hit a body,
Will it fly? And where?
A collection of his poems was published by his friend Lewis Campbell in 1882.

Electromagnetism
Maxwell had studied and commented on the field of electricity and magnetism as early as 1855/6 when "On Faraday's lines of force" was read to the Cambridge Philosophical Society.

- هو ثمرة زواج متأخر لوالديه.
- الولد الوحيد حيث ماتت الاخت الوحيده في طفولتها والاغلب قبل ولادته..
- يتيم الأم في الثامنة .

يتيم

08-05-2010, 09:38 PM

المشاركة 38

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا



رد: دراسة احصائية عن اليتم والشخصيات الخالدة

30

الاخوان رايت

اورفيل رايت 1871 – 1948
ويلبو رايت 1867 -1912

The Wright brothers, Orville (August 19, 1871 – January 30, 1948) and Wilbur (April 16, 1867 – May 30, 1912), were two Americans who are generally credited.with inventing and building the world's first successful airplane and making the first controlled, powered and sustained heavier-than-air human flight, on December 17, 1903. In the two years afterward, the brothers developed their flying machine into the first practical fixed-wing aircraft.
The brothers' fundamental breakthrough was their invention of three-axis control,
. From the beginning of their aeronautical work, the Wright brothers focused on unlocking the secrets of control to conquer "the flying problem", rather than developing more powerful engines as some other experimenters did. Their careful wind tunnel tests produced better aeronautical data than any before, enabling them to design and build wings and propellers more effective than any before. Their U.S. patent 821,393 claims the invention of a system of aerodynamic control that manipulates a flying machine's surfaces]
They gained the mechanical skills essential for their success by working for years in their shop with printing presses, bicycles, motors, and other machinery.

Their work with bicycles in particular influenced their belief that an unstable vehicle like a flying machine could be controlled and balanced with practice. From 1900 until their first powered flights in late 1903, they conducted extensive glider tests that also developed their skills as pilots.
.
The Wright brothers' status as inventors of the airplane has been subject to counter-claims by various parties. Much controversy persists over the many competing claims of early aviators
The Wright brothers were two of seven children born to Milton Wright (1828–1917) and Susan Catherine Koerner (1831–1889). Wilbur Wright was born near Millville, Indiana in 1867; Orville in Dayton, Ohio in 1871.

The brothers never married.
The other Wright siblings were named Reuchlin (1861–1920), Lorin (1862–1939), Katharine (1874–1929), and twins Otis and Ida (born 1870, died in infancy).

In elementary school, Orville was given to mischief and was once expelled. In 1878 their father, who traveled often as a bishop in the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, brought home a toy "helicopter" for his two younger sons. The device was based on an invention of French aeronautical pioneer Alphonse Pénaud.

Early career and research
Both brothers attended high school, but did not receive diplomas. The family's abrupt move in 1884 from Richmond, Indiana to Dayton (where the family had lived during the 1870s) prevented Wilbur from receiving his diploma after finishing four years of high school.

In the winter of 1885–86 Wilbur was accidentally struck in the face by a hockey stick while playing an ice-skating game with friends, resulting in the loss of his front teeth.
He had been vigorous and athletic until then, and although his injuries did not appear especially severe, he became withdrawn, and did not attend Yale as planned. Had he enrolled, his career might have taken a very different path than the extraordinary one he eventually followed with Orville. Instead, he spent the next few years largely housebound, caring for his mother who was terminally ill with tuberculosis and reading extensively in his father's library. He ably assisted his father during times of controversy within the Brethren Church but also expressed unease over his own lack of ambition.
Orville dropped out of high school after his junior year to start a printing business in 1889, having designed and built his own printing press with Wilbur's help. Wilbur shook off the lingering depression caused by his accident and joined the print shop, serving as editor while Orville was publisher of the weekly newspaper the West Side News, followed for only a few months by the daily Evening Item. One of their clients for printing jobs was Orville's friend and classmate in high school, Paul Laurence Dunbar, who rose to international acclaim as a ground-breaking African-American poet and writer. The Wrights printed the Dayton Tattler, a weekly newspaper that Dunbar edited for a brief period.
Capitalizing on the national bicycle craze, the brothers opened a repair and sales shop in 1892 (the Wright Cycle Exchange, later the Wright Cycle Company) and began manufacturing their own brand. in 1896. They used this endeavor to fund their growing interest in flight. In the early or mid-1890s they saw newspaper or magazine articles and probably photographs of the dramatic glides by Otto Lilienthal in Germany. The year 1896 brought three important aeronautical events. In May, Smithsonian Institution Secretary Samuel Langley successfully flew an unmanned steam-powered model aircraft. In the summer, Chicago engineer and aviation authority Octave Chanute brought together several men who tested various types of gliders over the sand dunes along the shore of Lake Michigan. In August, Lilienthal was killed in the plunge of his glider. These events lodged in the consciousness of the brothers. In May 1899 Wilbur wrote a letter to the Smithsonian Institution requesting information and publications about aeronautics. Drawing on the work of Sir George Cayley, Chanute, Lilienthal, Leonardo da Vinci, and Langley, they began their mechanical aeronautical experimentation that year.
The Wright brothers always presented a unified image to the public, sharing equally in the credit for their invention. Biographers note, however, that Wilbur took the initiative in 1899–1900, writing of "my" machine and "my" plans before Orville became deeply involved when the first person singular became the plural "we" and "our". Author James Tobin asserts, "it is impossible to imagine Orville, bright as he was, supplying the driving force that started their work and kept it going from the back room of a store in Ohio to conferences with capitalists, presidents, and kings. Will did that. He was the leader, from the beginning to the end."

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brothers
http://www.makif.org/vb/showthread.php?t=689

 الأم توفيت عندما كان اورفيل المولود في عام 1871 ثمانية عشر عاما (18 سنه ) حيث توفيت الام بعد مرض طويل مع التيفويد كما يظهر.
 كان عمر ويلبور رايت والذي ولد في 1867 اثنان وعشرون عاما .
 في شتاء 1886 تعرض ولبر الى حادث كسرت فيه أسنانه وهناك ما يشير إلى انه أصيب بالكآبة ويربط كتاب السيرة بين ذلك الحادث والعزلة التي فرضها على نفسه خطا حيث ان السبب الحقيقي هو مرض الأم ثم موتها في تقديري حيث تزامن ذلك الحادث مع مرض الأم وانتهى بالموت في العام 1889 حيث عاد ليعمل مع أخيه في المطبعة.
 طبيعة عمل الوالد جعلته بعيدا عن أولاده لفترات متباعدة على ما يبدو.

ايتام ....يتم متأخر واحد في سن 18 والاخر في سن 22 .

08-05-2010, 09:39 PM

المشاركة 40

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا



رد: دراسة احصائية عن اليتم والشخصيات الخالدة

لافوزيه

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794); French pronunciation: [ɑ̃ˈtwan lɔˈʁɑ̃ də la.vwaˈzje]), the father of modern chemistry, was a French noble prominent in the histories of chemistry and biology. He stated the first version of the law of conservation of mass, recognized and named oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783), abolished the phlogiston theory, helped construct the metric system, wrote the first extensive list of elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature.
He discovered that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always remains the same. Thus, for instance, if water is heated to steam, if salt is dissolved in water or if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass remains unchanged. He was also an investor and administrator of the "Ferme Générale" a private tax collection company; chairman of the board of the Discount Bank (later the Banque de France); and a powerful member of a number of other aristocratic administrative councils. All of these political and economic activities enabled him to fund his scientific research. At the height of the French Revolution he was accused by Marat of selling watered-down tobacco, and of other crimes, and was beheaded.
Early life

Born to a wealthy family in Paris, Antoine Laurent Lavoisier inherited a large fortune at the age of five with the passing of his mother.

He attended the College Mazarin in 1754 to 1761, studying chemistry, botany, astronomy, and mathematics. His education was filled with the ideals of the French Enlightenment of the time, and he felt fascination for Maquois's dictionary. He attended lectures in the natural sciences.
Lavoisier's devotion and passion for chemistry was largely influenced by Étienne Condillac, a prominent French scholar of the 18th century. His first chemical publication appeared in 1764. In collaboration with Jean-Étienne Guettard, Lavoisier worked on a geological survey of Alsace-Lorraine in June 1767.
At the age of 25, he was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences, France's most elite scientific society, for an essay on street lighting and in recognition for his earlier research. In 1769, he worked on the first geological map of France.
In 1771, at age 28, Lavoisier married the 13-year-old Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, the daughter of a co-owner of the Ferme. Over time, she proved to be a scientific colleague to her husband. She translated documents from English for him, including Richard Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston and Joseph Priestley's research. She created many sketches and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues. She also edited and published Lavoisier’s memoirs (whether any English translations of those memoirs have survived is unknown as of today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed ideas and problems related to chemistry.
Legacy
Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory.
He established the consistent use of the chemical balance, used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was an essential constituent of all acids (which later turned out to be erroneous خاطئ).
Lavoisier also did early research in physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiments with Laplace. They used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced, eventually finding the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion reaction.
Lavoisier also contributed to early ideas on composition and chemical changes by stating the radical theory, believing that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical process, combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility of allotropy in chemical elements when he discovered that diamond is a crystalline form of carbon.
However, much to his professional detriment, Lavoisier discovered no new substances, devised no really novel apparatus, and worked out no improved methods of preparation. He was essentially a theorist, and his great merit lay in the capacity of taking over experimental work that others had carried out—without always adequately recognizing their claims—and by a rigorous logical procedure, reinforced by his own quantitative experiments, of expounding the true explanation of the results. He completed the work of Black, Priestley and Cavendish, and gave a correct explanation of their experiments.
Overall, his contributions are considered the most important in advancing chemistry to the level reached in physics and mathematics during the 18th century.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier

- يتيم الأم في الخامسة وقد يكون يتيم الأب كونه هو صاحب الروثة المذكورة عن امه دون ذكر لوالده.
يتيم