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Socrates
- Socrates is regarded as one of the best ancient greek philosophers of all time. As teacher of Plato, he has been associated with highly advanced thinking during his time. His work continues to form much of the foundation for the study of philosophy today. Socrates has made important contributions to the study of logic and writings, and has provided a lot of groundwork that much of the Western civilization has followed.
==
Socrates (;
Greek
: Ancient Greek pronunciation:; c. 469 BC – 399 BC) was a
classical Greek
Athenian
philosopher
. Credited as one of the founders of
Western philosophy
, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students
Plato
and
Xenophon
, and the plays of his contemporary
Aristophanes
. Many would claim that Plato's dialogues are the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity.
Through his portrayal in Plato's dialogues, Socrates has become renowned for his contribution to the field of
ethics
, and it is this Platonic Socrates who also lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the
Socratic method
, or
elenchus
. The latter remains a commonly used tool in a wide range of discussions, and is a type of
pedagogy
in which a series of questions are asked not only to draw individual answers, but also to encourage fundamental insight into the issue at hand. It is Plato's Socrates that also made important and lasting contributions to the fields of
epistemology
and
logic
, and the influence of his ideas and approach remains strong in providing a foundation for much western philosophy that followed.
As
Martin Cohen
has put it, Plato, the idealist, offers "an idol, a master figure, for philosophy. A Saint, a prophet of the 'Sun-God', a teacher condemned for his teachings as a heretic."
[3]
Biography
The Socratic problem
An accurate picture of the historical Socrates and his philosophical viewpoints is problematic: an issue known as the
Socratic problem
.
As Socrates did not write philosophical texts, the knowledge of the man, his life, and his philosophy is entirely based on writings by his students and contemporaries. Foremost among them is
Plato
; however, works by
Xenophon
,
Aristotle
, and
Aristophanes
also provide important insights.
[4]
The difficulty of finding the “real” Socrates arises because these works are often philosophical or dramatic texts rather than straightforward histories. Aside from
Thucydides
(who makes no mention of Socrates or philosophers in general) and Xenophon, there are in fact no straightforward histories contemporary with Socrates that dealt with his own time and place. A corollary of this is that sources that do mention Socrates do not necessarily claim to be historically accurate, and are often partisan (those who prosecuted and convicted Socrates have left no testament). Historians therefore face the challenge of reconciling the various texts that come from these men to create an accurate and consistent account of Socrates' life and work. The result of such an effort is not necessarily realistic, merely consistent.
Plato is frequently viewed as the most informative source about Socrates' life and philosophy.
[5]
At the same time, however, many scholars believe that in some works Plato, being a literary artist, pushed his avowedly brightened-up version of "Socrates" far beyond anything the historical Socrates was likely to have done or said; and that Xenophon, being an historian, is a more reliable witness to the historical Socrates. It is a matter of much debate which Socrates Plato is describing at any given point—the historical figure, or Plato's fictionalization.
It is also clear from other writings and historical artifacts, however, that Socrates was not simply a character, or an invention, of Plato. The testimony of Xenophon and Aristotle, alongside some of Aristophanes' work (especially
The Clouds
), is useful in fleshing out a perception of Socrates beyond Plato's work.
Life
Details about Socrates can be derived from three contemporary sources: the
dialogues
of Plato and Xenophon (both devotees of Socrates), and the plays of
Aristophanes
. He has been depicted by some scholars, including
Eric Havelock
and
Walter Ong
, as a champion of
oral
modes of communication, standing up at the dawn of
writing
against its haphazard diffusion.
Aristophanes' play
The Clouds
portrays Socrates as a clown who teaches his students how to bamboozle their way out of debt. Most of Aristophanes' works, however, function as parodies. Thus, it is presumed this characterization was also not literal.
According to Plato, Socrates' father was
Sophroniscus
and his mother
Phaenarete
, a
midwife
. Though she was characterized as undesirable in temperament, Socrates married
Xanthippe
who was much younger than he. She bore for him three sons,
Lamprocles
, Sophroniscus and
Menexenus
. His friend
Crito of Alopece
criticized him for abandoning his sons when he refused to try to escape before his execution.
It is unclear how Socrates earned a living. Ancient texts seem to indicate that Socrates did not work. In Xenophon's
Symposium
, Socrates is reported as saying he devotes himself only to what he regards as the most important art or occupation: discussing philosophy. In
The Clouds
Aristophanes portrays Socrates as accepting payment for teaching and running a
sophist
school with
Chaerephon
, while in Plato's
Apology
and
Symposium
and in Xenophon's accounts, Socrates explicitly denies accepting payment for teaching. More specifically, in the
Apology
Socrates cites his poverty as proof he is not a teacher. According to
Timon of Phlius
and later sources, Socrates took over the profession of
stonemasonry
from his father. There was a tradition in antiquity, not credited by modern scholarship, that Socrates crafted the statues of the Three Graces, which stood near the Acropolis until the 2nd century AD.
[12]
Several of Plato's dialogues refer to Socrates' military service. Socrates says he served in the Athenian army during three campaigns: at
Potidaea
,
Amphipolis
, and
Delium
. In the
Symposium
Alcibiades
describes Socrates' valour in the battles of Potidaea and Delium, recounting how Socrates saved his life in the former battle (219e-221b). Socrates' exceptional service at Delium is also mentioned in the
Laches
by the General after whom the dialogue is named (181b). In the
Apology,
Socrates compares his military service to his courtroom troubles, and says anyone on the jury who thinks he ought to retreat from philosophy must also think soldiers should retreat when it seems likely that they will be killed in battle.
In 406 he was a member of the
Boule
, and his tribe the
Antiochis
held the
Prytany
on the day the Generals of the
Battle of Arginusae
, who abandoned the slain and the survivors of foundered ships to pursue the defeated Spartan navy, were discussed. Socrates was the
Epistates
and resisted the unconstitutional demand for a collective trial to establish the guilt of all eight Generals, proposed by
Callixeinus
. Eventually, Socrates refused to be cowed by threats of impeachment and imprisonment and blocked the vote until his Prytany ended the next day, whereupon the six Generals who had returned to Athens were condemned to death.
In 404 the
Thirty Tyrants
sought to ensure the loyalty of those opposed to them by making them complicit in their activities. Socrates and four others were ordered to bring a certain
Leon of Salamis
from his home for unjust execution. Socrates quietly refused, his death averted only by the overthrow of the Tyrants soon afterwards.
=
(Since Plato has Lysimachus refer to Sophroniscus in the past tense, and since the dialogue's dramatic date is not long after the
battle of Delium
, we may safely infer that
Sophroniscus was dead by 424.)
The fact that one of Socrates' sons - but
not
his
eldest
son
Lamprocles
- was named after Sophroniscus suggests that Sophroniscus was the less illustrious of the two grandfathers (
John Burnet
1911,
Plato: Phaedo
, p. 12) - that the father of Socrates' wife,
Xanthippe
, was named Lamprocles and had a more impressive pedigree than even Sophroniscus. All this suggests that Socrates' inherited social status was in fact much higher than is traditionally recognized.
= Phaenarete (
Greek
Φαιναρέτη), wife of
Sophroniscus
, was the mother of the
Greek philosopher
Socrates
and his half-brother, Patrocles. (Since Sophroniscus had died before 424 BC, he was probably Phaenarete's first husband, while Chaeredemus, father of Patrocles, was her second.) The name Phaenarete means "She who brings virtue to light".
[1
==
على الاغلب انه يتيم الاب حيث ان والدته تزوجت وانجب اخ غير شقيق. لكن لا يعرف متى مات والد وهناك من يقول انه مات قبل 424 ق.م.
مجهول الطفولة.
رد مع الإقتباس