1. Don Quixote Miguel De Cervantes - The story of the gentle knight and his servant Sancho Panza has entranced readers for centuries.
2. Pilgrim's Progress John Bunyan - The one with the Slough of Despond and Vanity Fair.
3. Robinson Crusoe Daniel Defoe - The first English novel.
4. Gulliver's Travels Jonathan Swift - A wonderful satire that still works for all ages, despite the savagery of Swift's vision.
5. Tom Jones Henry Fielding - The adventures of a high-spirited orphan boy: an unbeatable plot and a lot of sex ending in a blissful marriage.
6. Clarissa Samuel Richardson - One of the longest novels in the English language, but unputdownable.
7. Tristram Shandy Laurence Sterne- One of the first bestsellers, dismissed by Dr Johnson as too fashionable for its own good.
8. Dangerous Liaisons Pierre Choderlos De Laclos - An epistolary novel and a handbook for seducers: foppish, French, and ferocious.
9. Emma Jane Austen - Near impossible choice between this and Pride and Prejudice. But Emma never fails to fascinate and annoy.
10. Frankenstein Mary Shelley - Inspired by spending too much time with Shelley and Byron.
11. Nightmare Abbey Thomas Love Peacock - A classic miniature: a brilliant satire on the Romantic novel.
12. The Black Sheep Honore De Balzac - Two rivals fight for the love of a femme fatale. Wrongly overlooked.
13. The Charterhouse of Parma Stendhal - Penetrating and compelling chronicle of life in an Italian court in post-Napoleonic France.
14. The Count of Monte Cristo Alexandre Dmas - A revenge thriller also set in France after Bonaparte: a masterpiece of adventure writing.
15. Sybil Benjamin Disraeli - Apart from Churchill, no other British political figure shows literary genius.
16. David Copperfield Charles Dickens - This highly autobiographical novel is the one its author liked best.
17. Wuthering Heights Emily Bronte - Catherine Earnshaw and Heathcliff have passed into the language. Impossible to ignore.
18. Jane Eyre Charlotte Bronte - Obsessive emotional grip and haunting narrative.
19. Vanity Fair William Makepeace Thackeray - The improving tale of Becky Sharp.
20. The Scarlet Letter Nathaniel Hawthorne - A classic investigation of the American mind.
21. Moby-Dick Herman Melville - 'Call me Ishmael' is one of the most famous opening sentences of any novel.
22. Madame Bovary Gustave Flaubert - You could summarise this as a story of adultery in provincial France, and miss the point entirely.
23. The Woman in White Wilkie Collins - Gripping mystery novel of concealed identity, abduction, fraud and mental cruelty.
24. Alice's Adventures In Wonderland Lewis Carroll - A story written for the nine-year-old daughter of an Oxford don that still baffles most kids.
25. Little Women Louisa M. Alcott - Victorian bestseller about a New England family of girls.
26. The Way We Live Now Anthony Trollope - A majestic assault on the corruption of late Victorian England.
27. Anna Karenina Leo Tolstoy - The supreme novel of the married woman's passion for a younger man.
28. Daniel Deronda George Eliot
A passion and an exotic grandeur that is strange and unsettling.
29. The Brothers Karamazov Fyodor Dostoevsky
Mystical tragedy by the author of Crime and Punishment.
30. The Portrait of a Lady Henry James
The story of Isabel Archer shows James at his witty and polished best.
31. Huckleberry Finn Mark Twain
Twain was a humorist, but this picture of Mississippi life is profoundly moral and still incredibly influential.
32. Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde Robert Louis Stevenson
A brilliantly suggestive, resonant study of human duality by a natural storyteller.
33. Three Men in a Boat Jerome K. Jerome
One of the funniest English books ever written.
34. The Picture of Dorian Gray Oscar Wilde
A coded and epigrammatic melodrama inspired by his own tortured homosexuality.
35. The Diary of a Nobody George Grossmith
This classic of Victorian suburbia will always be renowned for the character of Mr Pooter.
36. Jude the Obscure Thomas Hardy
Its savage bleakness makes it one of the first twentieth-century novels.
37. The Riddle of the Sands Erskine Childers
A prewar invasion-scare spy thriller by a writer later shot for his part in the Irish republican rising.
38. The Call of the Wild Jack London
The story of a dog who joins a pack of wolves after his master's death.
39. Nostromo Joseph Conrad
Conrad's masterpiece: a tale of money, love and revolutionary politics.
40. The Wind in the Willows Kenneth Grahame
This children's classic was inspired by bedtime stories for Grahame's son.
41. In Search of Lost Time Marcel Proust
An unforgettable portrait of Paris in the belle epoque. Probably the longest novel on this list.
42. The Rainbow D. H. Lawrence
Novels seized by the police, like this one, have a special afterlife.
43. The Good Soldier Ford Madox Ford
This account of the adulterous lives of two Edwardian couples is a classic of unreliable narration.
44. The Thirty-Nine Steps John Buchan
A classic adventure story for boys, jammed with action, violence and suspense.
45. Ulysses James Joyce
Also pursued by the British police, this is a novel more discussed than read.
46. Mrs Dalloway Virginia Woolf
Secures Woolf's position as one of the great twentieth-century English novelists.
47. A Passage to India E. M. Forster
The great novel of the British Raj, it remains a brilliant study of empire.
48. The Great Gatsby F. Scott Fitzgerald
The quintessential Jazz Age novel.
49. The Trial Franz Kafka
The enigmatic story of Joseph K.
50. Men Without Women Ernest Hemingway
He is remembered for his novels, but it was the short stories that first attracted notice.
51. Journey to the End of the Night Louis-Ferdinand Celine
The experiences of an unattractive slum doctor during the Great War: a masterpiece of linguistic innovation.
52. As I Lay Dying William Faulkner
A strange black comedy by an American master.
53. Brave New World Aldous Huxley
Dystopian fantasy about the world of the seventh century AF (after Ford).
54. Scoop Evelyn Waugh
The supreme Fleet Street novel.
55. USA John Dos Passos
An extraordinary trilogy that uses a variety of narrative devices to express the story of America.
56. The Big Sleep Raymond Chandler
Introducing Philip Marlowe: cool, sharp, handsome - and bitterly alone.
57. The Pursuit Of Love Nancy Mitford
An exquisite comedy of manners with countless fans.
58. The Plague Albert Camus
A mysterious plague sweeps through the Algerian town of Oran.
59. Nineteen Eighty-Four George Orwell
This tale of one man's struggle against totalitarianism has been appropriated the world over.
60. Malone Dies Samuel Beckett
Part of a trilogy of astonishing monologues in the black comic voice of the author of Waiting for Godot.
61. Catcher in the Rye J.D. Salinger
A week in the life of Holden Caulfield. A cult novel that still mesmerises.
62. Wise Blood Flannery O'Connor
A disturbing novel of religious extremism set in the Deep South.
63. Charlotte's Web E. B. White
How Wilbur the pig was saved by the literary genius of a friendly spider.
64. The Lord Of The Rings J. R. R. Tolkien
Enough said!
65. Lucky Jim Kingsley Amis
An astonishing debut: the painfully funny English novel of the Fifties.
66. Lord of the Flies William Golding
Schoolboys become savages: a bleak vision of human nature.
67. The Quiet American Graham Greene
Prophetic novel set in 1950s Vietnam.
68 On the Road Jack Kerouac
The Beat Generation bible.
69. Lolita Vladimir Nabokov
Humbert Humbert's obsession with Lolita is a tour de force of style and narrative.
70. The Tin Drum Gunter Grass
Hugely influential, Rabelaisian novel of Hitler's Germany.
71. Things Fall Apart Chinua Achebe
Nigeria at the beginning of colonialism. A classic of African literature.
72. The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie Muriel Spark
A writer who made her debut in The Observer - and her prose is like cut glass.
73. To Kill A Mockingbird Harper Lee
Scout, a six-year-old girl, narrates an enthralling story of racial prejudice in the Deep South.
74. Catch-22 Joseph Heller
'[He] would be crazy to fly more missions and sane if he didn't, but if he was sane he had to fly them. If he flew them he was crazy and didn't have to; if he didn't want to he was sane and had to.'
75. Herzog Saul Bellow
Adultery and nervous breakdown in Chicago.
76. One Hundred Years of Solitude Gabriel Garcia Marquez
A postmodern masterpiece.
77. Mrs Palfrey at the Claremont Elizabeth Taylor
A haunting, understated study of old age.
78. Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy John Le Carre
A thrilling elegy for post-imperial Britain.
79. Song of Solomon Toni Morrison
The definitive novelist of the African-American experience.
80. The Bottle Factory Outing Beryl Bainbridge
Macabre comedy of provincial life.
81. The Executioner's Song Norman Mailer
This quasi-documentary account of the life and death of Gary Gilmore is possibly his masterpiece.
82. If on a Winter's Night a Traveller Italo Calvino
A strange, compelling story about the pleasures of reading.
83. A Bend in the River V. S. Naipaul
The finest living writer of English prose. This is his masterpiece: edgily reminiscent of Heart of Darkness.
84. Waiting for the Barbarians J.M. Coetzee
Bleak but haunting allegory of apartheid by the Nobel prizewinner.
85. Housekeeping Marilynne Robinson
Haunting, poetic story, drowned in water and light, about three generations of women.
86. Lanark Alasdair Gray
Seething vision of Glasgow. A Scottish classic.
87. The New York Trilogy Paul Auster
Dazzling metaphysical thriller set in the Manhattan of the 1970s.
88. The BFG Roald Dahl
A bestseller by the most popular postwar writer for children of all ages.
89. The Periodic Table Primo Levi
A prose poem about the delights of chemistry.
90. Money Martin Amis
The novel that bags Amis's place on any list.
91. An Artist of the Floating World Kazuo Ishiguro
A collaborator from prewar Japan reluctantly discloses his betrayal of friends and family.
92. Oscar And Lucinda Peter Carey
A great contemporary love story set in nineteenth-century Australia by double Booker prizewinner.
93. The Book of Laughter and Forgetting Milan Kundera
Inspired by the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, this is a magical fusion of history, autobiography and ideas.
94. Haroun and the Sea af Stories Salman Rushdie
In this entrancing story Rushdie plays with the idea of narrative itself.
95. La Confidential James Ellroy
Three LAPD detectives are brought face to face with the secrets of their corrupt and violent careers.
96. Wise Children Angela Carter
A theatrical extravaganza by a brilliant exponent of magic realism.
97. Atonement Ian McEwan
Acclaimed short-story writer achieves a contemporary classic of mesmerising narrative conviction.
98. Northern Lights Philip Pullman
Lyra's quest weaves fantasy, horror and the play of ideas into a truly great contemporary children's book.
99. American Pastoral Philip Roth
For years, Roth was famous for Portnoy's Complaint . Recently, he has enjoyed an extraordinary revival.
100. Austerlitz W. G. Sebald
Posthumously published volume in a sequence of dream-like fictions spun from memory, photographs and the German past.

واحد من أبرز الأدباء الإسبان في القرن السابع عشر الميلادي، ولد عام 1547 في قرطبة (إسبانيا) وهو ابن لصيدلي جراح فقير الحال أمضى طفولته متنقلاً هنا وهناك في إسبانيا.
كان يكتب الشعر في تلك الفترة، وكتب قائلاً أن (هناك طريقين يقودان إلى الثروة والمجد أحداهما طريق العلم والآخر طريق السلاح) لم يكن قد اقترب من أي منهما وهو في الثالثة والثلاثين وكان قبل ذلك أشد املاقاً.
كانت حياته حافلة بالأحداث والمغامرات، فقد شارك في معركة "ليبنتي" البحرية ضد العثمانيين، وفقد على أثرها إحدى ذراعيه، فلقِب بـ"أكتع ليبنتي". إلا أن ذلك لم يكن ليثني عزمه عن المغامرة من جديد، غير أن حظه العاثر قاده إلى الأسر في إحدى تحرشات الأسطول الأسباني على مدينة الجزائر بعد أن تم القبض عليه في ضواحي المدينة من طرف جنود سلطان الجزائر، أمضى خمسة أعوام في سجون مدينة الجزائر، لم يخرج منها إلا بعد أن تم دفع فديته.
كان يعيل ابنة غير شرعية وزوجته وأمه وعمته ( في ذلك اشارة غير مباشرة الى موت الاب ولكن لا يعرف متى ) وعندما كان ينتظر يحدوه الأمل بالنجاح، لذا فقد استقر رأيه على بدء مهنة أدبية، شعره غير موح ومسرحياته فاشلة رومانسيه الريفية، أطلق سراحه بعد أن دفع أهله فدية باهظة ثم عاد إلى إسبانيا واعتزل عام 1582 م الجيش بعد اشتراكه في القتال بالبرتغال.
بعد عودته إلى إسبانيا عام 1584 م تزوج من "كاتالينا دي سالازار" وأمضى بعضا من الوقت في منطقة "لامانشا" موطن زوجته، كانت حياته شاقة وصعبة بحيث أن الديون أثقلت كاهله مما اضطره إلى الاستدانة طيلة الوقت وسجن أكثر من مرة لعجزه عن تسديد ديونه.
نشر أول رواية خيالية تدور حول حياة الرعاة عام 1585 م مكتوبة بالشعر والنثر أسماها (لاجالاتيا) كتب بين عامي 1585 - 1588 أكثر من عشرين مسرحية لم يبق منها سوى مسرحيتين، كما ألف كثيراً من الشعر.
اختار بداية من عام 1587 م الاستقرار في إشبيلية، كان ذلك أثناء توليه مهمة الإشراف على تموين الأسطول الإسباني (الأرمادا) ثم كان أن أفلس البنك الذي كان يضع فيه الودائع المالية عام 1597 م، فوضع "سيرفانتس" في السجن مجددا، واستلهم أثناء فترة سجنه شخصية دون كيشوت دي لامانتشا]]
اختار بداية من عام 1587 م الاستقرار في إشبيلية، كان ذلك أثناء توليه مهمة الإشراف على تموين الأسطول الإسباني (الأرمادا)فشغل وظيفة مأمور في الحرب الإسبانية (الأرمادا) ليدفع الديون التي أثقلت كاهله لكن إسبانيا هزمت عام 1588 م مما أوقع سرفانتس في اضطراب كبير حيث كان قد أودع نقوده عند أحد الصيارفة المفلسين أودع بعدها السجن عند اكتشاف العجز في حساباته.
غادر السجن عام 1603 م عندما كان يكتب روايته (دون كيشوت) واحتجزته الشرطة ثانية عام 1605 م وهي (السنة التي نشر فيها) الجزء الأول.
نشر عام 1605 م. الجزء الأول من رواية (العبقري النبيل دون كيشوت دي لامانتشا) وتلفظ أحياناً (دون كيخوتة) أما الجزء الثاني فلم يظهر سوى عام 1615 م وهي أروع الكتب في الأدب العالمي وكثيراً مايقارن في حياته الواقعية ببطله الخيالي.
قبيل ظهور الجزء الثاني عام 1615 م كان قد أصدر أعمالاً أدبية قليلة الأهمية منها (روايات القدرة) عام 1613 م التي تتكون من إثنتي عشرة مغامرة رومانسية مبنية على خلفية واقعية وتعد من أمثلة مختلفة للسلوك الذي يجب تجنبه، ثم تبعها برواية ثانية بعنوان (الرحلة إلى بارناسوس) عام 1614 وأعقبها براجعة ساخرة للشعراء المعاصرين تتسم بالواقعية وسرعة الأداء.
قضى معظم حياته في العصر الذهبي في إسبانيا عندما كانت سفنها غنية ويتكلم المثقفون لغتها وأدبها معروف في أنحاء أوروبا لكنه لم يذق طعم الازدهار والرخاء وتوفي في 23 نيسان 1616 م
- مات فقيراً معدماً ولم يتذوق طعم الشهرة التي نالها بعدئذ.

Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra was born in 1547 in the city of Alcalá de Henares, near Madrid, Spain, the fourth of seven children born to noble Castilian surgeon Don Rodrigo de Cervantes and doña Leonor de Cortinas (d.1593). "There were but two families in the world, Have-much and Have-little." (ibid) Rodrigo was imprisoned because of debts in 1551, and it brought much hardship to the rest of the family.
سجن والده عندما كان عمره 4 سنوات مما اوقع العائلة في فقر شديد.
After studying philosophy and literature in Italy, Miguel enlisted as a soldier in Naples in 1570. Aboard the ship Marquesa he lost the use of his left hand 'by a musket-shot in the battle of Lepanto' [1571] (ibid).
حارب مع الجيش الاسباني وقطعت يده في إحدى المعارك عندما كان عمره 23 عام
A few years later the galley that Cervantes was sailing home on was captured by Barbary pirates. He was enslaved in Algiers along with many other Christians. While he did attempt to escape, it was not until 1580 that his family, especially by the efforts of his mother, and the Trinitarians, were able to pay ransom for him.
بعد بضعة سنوات وفي العام 1575 وبينما كان مبحرا عائدا إلى الوطن تم أسره وبيعه كعبد وتم سجنه في الجزائر وظل مسجونا لمدة خمس سنوات حيث أطلق سراحه عام 1580 عندما تمكنت والدته من دفع الفدية عنه وكان عمره حينها 33
Cervantes was born in Alcalá de Henares. In 1568, when he was a student, a number of his poems appeared in a volume published in Madrid, Spain, to commemorate the death of the Spanish queen Elizabeth of Valois.
كانت أولى قصائده لإحياء ذكرى موت الملكة اليزابيث
Probably during his time in prison Cervantes conceived the idea for a story about a man who imagines himself a knight-errant (a knight who seeks out adventure) performing the splendid feats described in medieval tales of chivalry.
It wasn't until five years later that Cervantes was released — but only after four unsuccessful escape attempts and after his family and friends raised 500 escudos, an enormous sum of money that would drain the family financially, as ransom.
اموال الفدية التي دفعت لاطلاق سراحة كانت ضخمة بحيث انها ارهقت العئالة ماليا.
He had a daughter from an affair with an actress.
A few years later, Cervantes left his wife, faced severe financial difficulties, and was jailed at least three times (once as a murder suspect, although there was insufficient evidence to try him).
سجن بعد بضعة سنين ثلاث مرات بسبب مشاكله المالية ةمرة بتهمة القتل ولكن لم تتوفر ادلة كافية لادانية في التقل
He eventually settled in Madrid in 1606, shortly after the first part of "Don Quijote" was published.
Although publication of the novel didn't make Cervantes rich, it eased his financial burden and gave him recognition and the ability to devote more time to writing. He published the second part of Don Quijote in 1615 and wrote dozens of other plays, short stories, novels and poems (although many critics have little good to say about his poetry).
Cervantes' final novel was Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda ("The Exploits of Persiles and Sigismunda"), published three days before his death on April 23, 1616. Coincidentally, Cervantes' date of death is the same as William Shakespeare's, although in reality Cervantes' death came 10 days sooner because Spain and England used different calendars at the time.

اهم احداث حياته:
1- سجن والده وعمره 4 سنوات.
2- فقر العائلة الشديد.
3- يبدو انه يتيم الاب لكن لا يعرف تحديدا متى.
4- قطعت يده وهو يحارب في سن العشرين
5- سجنه لمدة خمس سنوات.
6- فقر شديد بسبب اموال الفدية

ً

مساء الخير أستاذ ايوب صابر

يسرني ان اجد لي مكان للجلوس والمتابعة..


الله يحفظك ويجزاك كل خير على اطلاعنا على كل شي مفيد..

** مسيرة الموحِّد \ جون بونيان \ ترجمة : محمود عباس مسعود **

John Bunyan (28 November 1628 – 31 August 1688) was an English Christian writer and preacher, famous for writing Pilgrim's Progress. Though he was a Reformed Baptist, in the Church of England he is remembered with a Lesser Festival on 30 August, and on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on August 29.

In 1628, John Bunyan was born to Thomas Bunyan and Margaret Bentley at Bunyan's End, in the parish of Elstow, Bedfordshire, England. Bunyan's End was located approximately halfway between the hamlet of Harrowden (one mile southeast of Bedford) and Elstow's High Street.
He is recorded in the Elstow parish register as having been baptised John Bunyan, on 30 November 1628.
On May 23, 1649, Thomas married his first wife, Margaret Bentley. Like Thomas, she was from Elstow and she was also born in 1603. In 1628, Margaret's sister, Rose Bentley, married Thomas' half-brother Edward Bunyan. They were ordinary villagers, with Thomas earning a living as a chapman but he may also have been a brazier - one who made and/or mended kettles and pots. Bunyan wrote of his modest origins, "My descent was of a low and inconsiderable generation, my father's house being of that rank that is meanest and most despised of all the families of the land".
John was probably educated at his father's house, possibly with other poor country boys, but in his writings he refers to his days in school. So he must also have spent some time at a school, possibly the one in Houghton Conquest Some think that Bunyan may have attended Bedford Grammar School but some records show that only pupils living in the Borough of Bedford were eligible for a place there. Either way, his later writings demonstrate a high degree of English literacy.
Like his father, John chose a job 'on the road', by adopting the trade of tinker. This was a semi-skilled occupation. Few people could afford to purchase new pots when old ones became holed, so they were mended time and time again. The arrival of a tinker was therefore often a welcome sight, although the semi-nomadic nature of their life led to tinkers being regarded by some in the same poor light as gypsies
1644was an eventful year for the Bunyan family.
in June, John lost his mother and,

في شهر حزيران 1644 ماتت امه وعمره 16 سنه
in July, his sister Margaret died.
بعد ذلك بشهر واحد ماتت اخته مارجرت

Following this, his father married (for the third time) to Anne Pinney (or Purney) and a stepbrother, Charles, was born. It

والده تزوج للمره الثالثة
may have been the arrival of his stepmother that, following his 16th birthday, led John to leave the family home and enlist in the Parliamentary army.
From 1644 to 1647 John served at Newport Pagnell garrison. The English Civil War was then nearing the end of the first stage.

John was probably saved from death one day when a fellow soldier volunteered to go into battle in his place and was killed while walking sentry duty.
انقذ من الموت بعد ان تطوع مكانه جندي بديل وقتل في المعركة

After the civil war was won by the Parliamentarians, Bunyan returned to his former trade.
In his autobiography, Grace Abounding, Bunyan wrote that he led an abandoned life in his youth and was morally reprehensible as a result.
كتب في مذكراته انه كان يعيش حياة عزلة واهمال في شبابه وحياة مجون

However, there appears to be no outward evidence that he was any worse than his neighbours. Examples of sins to which he confessed to are profanity, dancing, and bell-ringing. The increasing awareness of his (in his view) un-Biblical life led him to contemplate acts of impiety and profanity; in particular, he was harassed by a curiosity in regard to the "unpardonable sin", and a prepossession that he had already committed it. He was known as an adept linguist as far as profanity was concerned; even the most proficient swearers were known to remark that Bunyan was "the ungodliest fellow for swearing they ever heard".

He continually heard voices urging him to "sell Christ," and was tortured by fearful visions.

While playing a game of Tip-cat on Elstow village green, Bunyan claimed to have heard a voice that asked: "Wilt thou leave thy sins and go to heaven or have thy sins and go to hell?" Because Puritans held the Sabbath day sacred and permitted no sport,

John believed that this had been the voice of God, chastising his indulgent ways. John's spirituality was born from this experience and he began to struggle with his sense of guilt, self-doubt and his belief in the Bible's promise of damnation and salvation.
اعتقد ان ذلك كان صوت الله ولذلك اصبح يميل الى الحياة الروحية وبدأ يعاني من شعوره بالذنب

In 1649, when he was about 21, he moved into a cottage on the western side of the northern end of Elstow's High Street. In 1650 he married a young woman, an orphan whose father had left her only two books as her inheritance.
في العام 1649 وحين كان عمره 21 سنه اتقل الى كوخ في نهاية المنطقة التي كان يسكن بها وفي العام 1650 تزوج امراءة صغيرة في السن يتيمة ترك لها والدها كتابين فقط كورثه

The two books were Arthur Dent's Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven and Lewis Bayly's Practice of Piety, and the content of these two books appears to have strongly influenced John towards a religious life. (

John's wife's name is not recorded, but the Bunyan's first, blind, daughter (born in 1650), was called
Mary, and it is possible that she was named after her.) The Bunyans' life was modest, to say the least. Bunyan wrote that they were "as poor as poor might be", not even "a dish or spoon between them".
يقول الكاتب بأنه كان يعيش حياة فقر مدقع حتى ان بيته كا يلو من صحن ومعلقه

As John struggled with his new found Christian faith, he became increasingly despondent and fell into mental turmoil.
اصابه نوع من الاضراب العقلي وكان يظن نفسه احيانا الراهب بول

During this time of conflict, Bunyan began a four year long discussion and spiritual journey with a few poor women of Bedford who belonged to a nonconformist sect that worshipped in St. John's Church.

He also increasingly identified himself with St. Paul, who had characterised himself as "the chief of sinners", and believed he was one of the spiritual elite, chosen by God.
وكان يظن انه مختار من الله

As a result of these experiences, John Bunyan was baptised and received into St John's church and he began to follow the teachings of its pastor, John Gifford.

A second daughter, Elizabeth, was born in 1654, and in 1655 Bunyan moved his family to St Cuthberts Street, Bedford. That same year John Gifford died and John started preaching.

John's son Thomas was born in 1656, his first book “Some Gospel Truths” was published and John Burton was appointed minister at St John's church; in 1657 he became a deacon. His son John was born and his second book “Vindication” was published.

Imprisonments
As his popularity and notoriety grew, Bunyan increasingly became a target for slander and libel; he was described as "a witch, a Jesuit, a highwayman" and was said to have mistresses and multiple wives. In 1658, aged 30, he was arrested for preaching at Eaton Socon and indicted for preaching without a licence. He continued preaching, however, and did not suffer imprisonment until November 1660, when he was taken to the county gaol in Silver Street, Bedford.

سجن عام 1660
In that same year, Bunyan married his second wife, Elizabeth, by whom he had two more children, Sarah and Joseph. .

Bunyan wrote The Pilgrim's Progress in two parts, the first of which was published in London in 1678 and the second in 1684. He began the work in his first period of imprisonment, and probably finished it during the second. The earliest edition in which the two parts combined in one volume came in 1728. A third part falsely attributed to Bunyan appeared in 1693, and was reprinted as late as 1852. Its full title is The Pilgrim's Progress from This World to That Which Is to Come.
The Pilgrim's Progress is arguably one of the most widely known allegories ever written, and has been extensively translated. Protestant missionaries commonly translated it as the first thing after the Bible.
Two other successful works of Bunyan's are less well-known: The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680), an imaginary biography, and The Holy War (1682), an allegory. A third book which reveals Bunyan's inner life and his preparation for his appointed work is Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666). It is a classic example of a spiritual autobiography, and thus is focused on his own spiritual journey; his motive in writing it was plainly to exalt the Christian concept of grace and to comfort those passing through experiences like his own.

The above works have appeared in numerous editions. There are several noteworthy collections of editions of The Pilgrim's Progress, e.g., in the British Museum and in the New York Public Library, collected by the late James Lenox.
Bunyan became a popular preacher as well as a prolific author, though most of his works consist of expanded sermons. Though a Baptist preacher, in theology he was a Puritan. The portrait his friend Robert White drew, which has often been reproduced, shows the attractiveness of his true character. He was tall, had reddish hair, prominent nose, a rather large mouth, and sparkling eyes.
He was no scholar, except of the English Bible, but he knew scripture thoroughly. He was also influenced by Martin Luther's Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians, in the translation of 1575.
Some time before his final release from prison Bunyan became involved in a controversy with Kiffin, Danvers, Deune, Paul, and others. In 1673 he published his Differences in Judgement about Water-Baptism no Bar to Communion, in which he took the ground that "the Church of Christ hath not warrant to keep out of the communion the Christian that is discovered to be a visible saint of the word, the Christian that walketh according to his own light with God." While he owned "water baptism to be God's ordinance," he refused to make "an idol of it," as he thought those did who made the lack of it a ground for disfellowshipping those recognised as genuine Christians.
Kiffin and Paul published a response in Serious Reflections (London, 1673), in which they argued in favour of the restriction of the Lord's Supper to baptised believers, and received the approval of Henry Danvers in his Treatise of Baptism (London, 1673 or 1674). The controversy resulted in the Particular (Calvinistic) Baptists leaving the question of communion with the unbaptised open. Bunyan's church admitted paedobaptists to fellowship and finally became paedobaptist (Congregationalist).
At one time, The Pilgrim's Progress was considered the most widely read and translated book in the English language apart from the Bible. The charm of the work, which gives it wide appeal among old and young, learned and ignorant, readers of all possible schools of thought and theology, lies in the interest of a story in which the intense imagination of the writer makes characters, incidents, and scenes alike live in the imagination of his readers as things actually known and remembered by themselves, in its touches of tenderness and quaint humour, its bursts of heart-moving eloquence, and its pure, nervous, idiomatic English. Macaulay has said, "Every reader knows the straight and narrow path as well as he knows a road on which he has been backwards and forwards a hundred times," and he adds that "In England during the latter half of the seventeenth century there were only two minds which possessed the imaginative faculty in a very eminent degree. One of these minds produced the Paradise Lost, the other The Pilgrim's Progress."
The images Bunyan uses in Pilgrim's Progress are but reflections of images from his own world; the strait gate is a version of the wicket gate at Elstow church, the Slough of Despond is a reflection of Squitch Fen, a wet and mossy area near his cottage in Harrowden, the Delectable Mountains are an image of the Chiltern Hills surrounding Bedfordshire. Even his characters, like the Evangelist as influenced by John Gifford, are reflections of real people. This pilgrimage was not only real for Bunyan as he lived it, but his portrait evoked this reality for his readers. Rudyard Kipling once referred to Bunyan as “the father of the novel, salvation's first Defoe.”
Bunyan wrote about 60 books and tracts, of which The Holy War ranks next to The Pilgrim's Progress in popularity. A passage from Part Two of The Pilgrim's Progress beginning "Who would true Valour see" has been used in the hymn "To be a Pilgrim".
The Scottish philosopher David Hume used Bunyan to illustrate the idea of a "standard of taste" in aesthetic matters: 'Whoever would assert an equality of genius and elegance between Ogilby and Milton, or Bunyan and Addison, would be thought to defend no less an extravagance, than if he had maintained a mole-hill to be as high as Teneriffe, or a pond as extensive as the ocean.' (Hume, "Of the Standard of Taste", originally published in his Four Dissertations (1757).)
Works

1984, George Orwell
A Christmas Carol, Charles Dickens
A Prayer For Owen Meany, John Irving
A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens
A Town Like Alice, Nevil Shute
Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain
Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, Lewis Carroll
Animal Farm, George Orwell
Anna Karenina, Leo Tolstoy
Artemis Fowl, Eoin Colfer
Black Beauty, Anna Sewell
Brave New World, Aldous Huxley
Brideshead Revisited, Evelyn Waugh
Bridget Jones's Diary, Helen Fielding
Captain Corelli's Mandolin, Louis de Bernieres
Charlie And The Chocolate Factory, Roald Dahl
Crime and Punishment, Fyodor Dostoyevsky
David Copperfield, Charles Dickens
Don Quixote, Miguel De Cervantes
Dracula, Bram Stoker
Dubliners, James Joyce
Emma, Jane Austen
Eugenie Grandet, Honore de Balzac
Frankenstein, Mary Shelley
Gone with the Wind, Margaret Mitchell
Good Omens, Terry Pratchett and Neil Gaiman
Goodnight Mister Tom, Michelle Magorian
Great Expectations, Charles Dickens
Grimm's Fairy Stories, The Grimm Brothers
Gulliver's Travels, Jonathan Swift
Heidi, Johanna Spyri
Holes, Louis Sachar
Jane Eyre, Charlotte Brontë
Kane And Abel, Jeffrey Archer
Les Misérables, Victor Hugo
Little Women, Louisa May Alcott
Lord Of The Flies, William Golding
Love In The Time Of Cholera, Gabriel García Márquez
Madame Bovary, Gustave Flaubert
Memoirs Of A Geisha, Arthur Golden
Memoirs of Fanny Hill, John Cleland
Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
Metamorphosis, Franz Kafka
Middlemarch, George Eliot
Midnight's Children, Salman Rushdie
Moby Dick, Herman Melville
Northanger Abbey, Jane Austen
Nostromo, Joseph Conrad
Notes from the Underground, Fyodor Dostoevsky
Of Mice And Men, John Steinbeck
Oliver Twist, Charles Dickens
One Hundred Years Of Solitude, Gabriel García Márquez
Paradise Lost, John Milton
Persuasion, Jane Austen
Pinocchio, Carlo Collodi
Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen
Rebecca, Daphne du Maurier
Siddhartha, Hermann Hesse
Tales of Terror and Mystery, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
Tess of the d'Urbervilles, Thomas Hardy
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, Mark Twain
The Call of the Wild, Jack London
The Catcher in the Rye, J.D. Salinger
The Colour Of Magic, Terry Pratchett
The Count of Monte Cristo, Alexandre Dumas père
The Da Vinci Code, Dan Brown
The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, Douglas Adams
The Jungle Book, Rudyard Kipling
The Jungle, Upton Sinclair
The Last of the Mohicans, James Fenimore Cooper
The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, Washington Irving
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, CS Lewis
The Lord of the Rings, J.R.R. Tolkien
The Lost World, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
The Moonstone, Wilkie Collins
The Phantom of the Opera, Gaston Leroux
The Picture of Dorian Gray, Oscar Wilde
The Pilgrim's Progress, John Bunyan
The Pillars Of The Earth, Ken Follett
The Provost, John Galt
The Ragged Trousered Philanthropists, Robert Tressell
The Return of Sherlock Holmes, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne
The Stand, Stephen King
The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Robert Louis Stevenson
The Thirty-Nine Steps, John Buchan
The Thorn Birds, Colleen McCollough
The Turn of the Screw, Henry James
The War of the Worlds, H. G. Wells
The Wind in the Willows, Kenneth Grahame
The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, L. Frank Baum
To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee
Treasure Island, Robert Louis Stevenson
Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea, Jules Verne
Ulysses, James Joyce
Vanity Fair, William Makepeace Thackeray
War and Peace, Leo Tolstoy
Watership Down, Richard Adams
Wuthering Heights, Emily Brontë

يكتشف كروزو آكلي لحوم بشر يقومون بزيارة الجزيرة ليقتلوا ويأكلوا السجناء، في بادئ الأمر يخطط لقتل الهمج لفظاعتهم لكن يدرك أن ليس لديه الحق لعمل هذا لأنهم لم يهاجموه ولم يرتكبوا جريمة بمعرفته. يحلم كروزو بأسر واحد أو أثنين من الخدم بتحرير بعض السجناء وفي الحقيقة، عندما استطاع سجين الهُرُوب، يساعده كروزو، يَسمّي رفيقَه الجديد.َ"جمعةَ Friday" تبعا ليومِ الأسبوع الذيِ ظهر فيهَ، ويُعلّمُه إلإنجليزية ويُحوّلُه إلى المسيحيةِ.
تصل مجموعة جديدة من السكان الأصليين ويشاركون في وليمة مريعة ويستطيع جمعة وكروزو قتل معظمهم والاحتفاظ باثنان منهم (واحد هو والد جمعة والثاني أسباني) يخبر الأسباني كروزو أن مجموعة من الأسبان الذين غرقوا موجودون على هذه الجزيرة. تبتكر خطة حيث يعود الأسباني ووالد جمعة والبقية إلى الجزيرة حيث يبنون سفينة ليبحروا بها إلى ميناء اسبانيا.

رغم أن القصه تعتبر من أعظم القصص في تاريخ الأدب الأوربى إلا أن هناك تشابهاَ مريباَ بين فكرتها وفكرة قصة حي بن يقظان لابن طفيل، لكن أقرب احتمال هو أنه استقاها من حياة بحار علق في جزيرة مهجورة ويدعى ألكسندر سيلكيرك. القصه كانت مصدر لعدة قصص وأعمال تلفزيونيه أخرى مثل طرزان وماوكلي.

دانيال ديفو ورواية التشرد
دانيال ديفو ورواية التشرد " البيكارسك"
دراسة نقدية عن روايتي " روبنسون كروزو " و " مول فلاندرز "

كتب دانيال ديفو روايتين من روايات التشرد "البيكارسك" وهما "روبنسون كروزو" و "مول فلاندرز". وتحاول هذه الدراسة ان تقدم لمحة عن طبيعة رواية التشرد وتظهر الفرق بين هاتين الروايتين وعلاقتهما بالنظام الانكليزي سياسيا واجتماعيا واقتصاديا.
يعتبر دانيال ديفو رمزاً كبيراً بين كتاب الرواية ومؤسساً لعدد من المجلات الادبية. اتخذ ديفو الادب والصحافة مهنة له وحصل على مركزه الذي يشغله في كل تاريخ حقيقي للرواية كرائد اذا لم يكن كمؤسس فعلي للرواية الانكليزية 1. كان ابنا لمعارض سياسي لذلك درس في كلية معارضة للسلطة في ستوك نيوينغتن. عمل في السياسة كعميل حكومي لكلا الحزبين " الويغ " و " التوري " مع بعض الارتياب في كونه كان يعمل لكليهما في الوقت نفسه. كان ديفو مفكراََ ومخترعاََ ومفلساََ ورحالة وصحفياً 2.
كتب ديفو الكثير من الكراسات والرسائل والكتيبات في موضوعات مختلفة، ولكن بعض النقاد يرى انه قد منح الرواية اصالتها 3. ان كتابه الاول "الريفيو" 1704م – 1713م قد أُعتبر كنقطة تحول في تاريخ الصحافة والمجلات الادبية. وقد كان نتاجه " شبح المسزفيل " عملاً خيالياً اعتمد على نتائج ابحاثه. وعندما بلغ ديفو الستين من عمره نشر رائعته " روبنسون كروزو " سنة 1719م. ثم تشجع لنشر العديد من الروايات والكتابات الاخرى مثل "الكابتن سنغلتن" 1720م؛ "مول فلاندرز" 1722م؛ "الكولونيل جاك" 1722م؛ "صحيفة سنة الطاغوت" 1722م؛ و "روكسانا" 1724م. وقد ضمن افكاره حول الرواية بشكل واضح في "صحيفة سنة الطاعون".
ان جذر كلمة "بيكاريسك" هو الكلمة الاسبانية "بيكارو". ان هذا النوع من الكتابة هو عبارة عن قصة حياة متشرد ذي طبيعة طيبة؛ عن مغامر ذكي ومسلٍ من طبقة اجتماعية واطئة والذي يشق طريقه بالاحتيال والغش اكثر من الاحتراف النزيه 4. فهو يبدأ حياته بالمهن المتدنية كخادم فيستدر العطف وينزلق بسهولة من مهنة الى اخرى ويرتكب بعض الجرائم احياناً.
تكون الحبكة سائبة في رواية التشرد حيث يسرد المتشرد نفسه احداث مغامراته على الطريق. ان الرواية الاسبانية "لازاريو دي تورمس" (1554م) هي الرواية الاولى من هذا النوع، والتي تعد الاكثر شعبية والتي اضفت على هذا النوع اسمه. اما الرواية الانكليزية الاولى من هذا النوع فهي رواية "المسافر التعيس الحظ؛ او قصة حياة جاك ولتون" (1594م) لمؤلفها توماس ناش. اما الرواية الاخيرة من هذا النوع فهي رواية توماس مان "اعتراف فيلكس كرول".
ان العنوان الكامل لرواية "روبنسون كروزو" هو "حياة البحار روبنسون كروزو ومغامراته الغريبة في يورك"، والشخصية الحقيقية لبطل هذه الرواية هو الكسندر سيلكيرك. وقد كان في رحلة بحرية مع زملائه البحارة الى البرازيل، ولكنه عندما نشب نزاع بينه وبين زميله سترادلنغ، الذي اصبح قبطاناً بعد موت القبطان الحقيقي، وتزايد هذا النزاع فقد قرر ان ينزل زميله على ساحل جزيرة خوان فيرناندز مع ممتلكاته الشخصية واشيائه الضرورية وعاش هناك وحيداً لمدة اربع سنوات ونصف (1704م – 1707م) ثم التقطته سفينة ما واعادته الى انكلترة.
وقد ذكر جاي إن. بوكوك سببين عن اهمية هذه الرواية والتي عدها معجزة ادبية :
1. قوة الحقائق فيها والكمية الهائلة من التفاصيل التافهة والتي جعلت الحياة فيها اكثر حيوية.
2. تأثيره على الاجيال بحيث ان الكتاب هو الاول والاخير وهو التبرير السامي للفردية.
وهذه الفردية جعلت ايان وات في كتابه "ظهور الرواية" يكتب فصلا بعنوان ( روبنسون كروزو، الفردية والرواية ) لتفسير النظام السياسي للمجتمع الانكليزي وانعكاساته على الرواية 5. وقد اورد نظريات روسو ولوك عن العقد الاجتماعي ليقرر ان الدافع الاقتصادي والتوقير الغريزي لمسك الدفاتر وقانون العقد الاجتماعي هي القضايا الوحيدة على الاطلاق التي يكون فيها روبنسون كروزو رمزا للعمليات التي ترافقت مع ظهور الفردية الاقتصادية. وهذه الفردية الاقتصادية تمنع كروزو من الاهتمام بروابطه العائلية سواء كان كأبن او كزوج. ولم يكن كروزو مجرد أَفـّاق في رواية تشرد ولكنه يشعر انه ليس مرتبطا ببلاده بروابط عاطفية ولا بأي منها تجاه عائلته ولكنه كان مقتنعاً بالناس مهما كانت جنسياتهم والمؤهلين لعقد صفقات معهم.
لذلك فان بامكان الفرد ان يقول ان كروزو يمثل رمزا للاستعمارية البريطانية بعد فترة الاكتشافات الجغرافية وخاصة تلك المتعلقة بدول العالم الثالث. وتبرز مصداقية هذه الفكرة من الجزيرة البدائية التي تحتاج الى ان تُكتَشف وتتطور لتصل الى الحضارة الانكليزية بواسطة الرجل الانكليزي. وان اكلة لحوم البشر البدائيين يمثلون هؤلاء السكان المتوحشين من العالم الثالث وفق وجهة النظر الاوروبية. وقد تأكدت هذه الفكرة بالعلاقة المتمثلة بين كروزو "السيد" وفرايدي او ( جمعة ) "الخادم" او "العبد" والذي اعطاه سيده الاسم وعلّمه ما يريد سيده ان يتعلم. ان هذا الترميز السياسي ربما يناقض الدروس الاخلاقية لديفو والذي قدّم بها بعض اعماله مثل "مدرس العائلة" ولكن مثلما يقول وات : كانت رواياته لا تعكس النظرية ولكن التطبيق.
يتفق العديد من النقاد على ان "مول فلاندرز" تختلف عن رواية التشرد المثالية. جي. أي. ايتكن في تقديمه للرواية وتحليله للمقدمة التي كتبها المؤلف نفسه، قال ان هناك تماثل سطحي لروايات التشرد القديمة من مدرسة هيد "المتشرد الانكليزي" 6. كذلك فان ايان وات، الذي يختلف في تعامله مع هذا النوع من الرواية واسباب هذه الظاهرة، قال ان المتشرد لا يشعر بالندم على اعماله الخاطئة كما فعلت مول فلاندرز وان الاختلاف بين رواية " مول فلاندرز " ورواية التشرد هو ايضاً نتيجة لتغير اجتماعي معين يرتبط مباشرة بظهور النزعة الفردية. وقد قال ايان وات ان ديفو قد صوّر شخصياته في رواية التشرد كضحايا للظروف الاجتماعية ولكن هذا ليس صحيحا، على الاقل بالنسبة لمقدمة ديفو لروايته عندما قال ان البطلة تتظاهر بالندم والضعة. ولم يتوصل ديفو في مقدمته الى الاسباب التي تجعل بطلته ترتكب الجرائم. فقد ادان تلك الاعمال الاجرامية فقط طبقاً لمعتقداته الاجتماعية واوضح ان النظام الاجتماعي بأكمله مسؤول عن تلك الجرائم. ذلك النظام الاجتماعي الذي يميل للتغيير نحو الرأسمالية، يدفع الافراد لارتكاب الجرائم لكي يحفظوا أنفسهم من غائلة الجوع كما يقول ايتكن.
من هذا نستنتج ان دانيال ديفو لم يكن مهتما برواية التشرد النمطية وخاصة في روايته "مول فلاندرز"، حيث شهدت بطلتها التغيير في المجتمع الانكليزي نحو الفردية الاقتصادية. ولم يتعامل ديفو مع هذا العنصر من عناصر التغيير ولكن روايته تعكس هذه الحقيقة. لقد كانت شخصياته ضحايا للنظام الاجتماعي الانكليزي ولكنه في نظريته اعتبرهم كآكلي لحوم البشر.
ان رواية " روبنسون كروزو " تعكس النزعة الاستعمارية الانكليزية المتنامية خلال القرنين السابع عشر والثامن عشر ولذلك فأنها ليست مجرد رواية تشرد بل انها تختلف عن ذلك في هذا المنظور. ويمكن اعتبارها كترميز سياسي للنزعة الاستعمارية الاوروبية.

المصادر
1. تيلو تسون جي. و آخرون الأدب الإنكليزي في القرن الثامن عشر، الولايات المتحدة 1969.
2. ايفور ايفانز التاريخ الموجز للادب الانكليزي، ميدل سيكس 1976.
3. جاي. إن. بوكوك روبنسون كروزو لدانيال ديفو، لندن 1966.
4. كالفن إس. براون رفيق القاريء في الادب العالمي، نيويورك 1973.
5. ايان وات ظهور الرواية لندن 1957.
6. جي. أي. ايتكن مول فلاندرز لدانيال ديفو لندن 1963
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اهمية الرواية:
- قوة الحقائق فيها والكمية الهائلة من التفاصيل التافهة والتي جعلت الحياة فيها اكثر حيوية.
- تأثيره على الاجيال بحيث ان الكتاب هو الاول والاخير وهو التبرير السامي للفردية
- ان هذا النوع من الكتابة هو عبارة عن قصة حياة متشرد ذي طبيعة طيبة؛ عن مغامر ذكي ومسلٍ من طبقة اجتماعية واطئة والذي يشق طريقه بالاحتيال والغش اكثر من الاحتراف النزيه 4. فهو يبدأ حياته بالمهن المتدنية كخادم فيستدر العطف وينزلق بسهولة من مهنة الى اخرى ويرتكب بعض الجرائم احياناً.
- تكون الحبكة سائبة في رواية التشرد حيث يسرد المتشرد نفسه احداث مغامراته على الطريق.

شارك ديفو في الأحداث السياسية في تلك الحقبة وكتب في ظلها، وانضم إلى جيش الملك الهولندي الأصل وليم الثالث في عام 1686 وكتب قصيدته السياسية الهجائية «رجل إنكليزي أصيل» The True-Born Englishman ت(1701- 1702) دافع فيها عن الملك ضد اليعقوبيين The Jacobeans أنصار الملك جيمس الثاني الذين رفضوا حكم ملك هولندي وطالبوا بإعادة سلالة الملك جيمس إلى العرش. واستمر التوتر السياسي في السنوات الأولى من القرن الثامن عشر، ونشر ديفو العديد من الكتابات الساخرة والمناهضة لليعقوبيين في دورية «ريفيو» The Review ت(1704-1713) التي كانت صحيفة سياسية ساخرة تنتقد الحياة الاقتصادية والسياسية والاجتماعية، بأسلوب يشبه افتتاحيات الصحف، وأدت كتاباته هذه إلى ملاحقته وسجنه مدة قصيرة. ظهرت في كتابات ديفو آراؤه الدينية، إذ كان متشدداً في مفاهيمه الأخلاقية. وكتب عند وفاة الملك وليم وتولي الملكة آن Anne العرش كراساً أسماه «الطريق الأقصر للقضاء على المنشقين»The Shortest Way With Dissenters عام (1702) صور فيه الصراع بين الموالين والمنشقين عن الكنيسة وطالب ساخراً بقتل الجميع.
يصل عدد مؤلفات ديفو إلى نحو أربعمئة بين قصائد وأعمال تاريخية ورسائل وأدب رحلات وكتيبات سياسية ودينية وروايات، ومن أهمها «الطريقة لجعل لندن أكثر المدن ازدهاراً في الكون» The Way to Make London the Most Flourishing City in the Universe و«خطة للتجارة الإنكليزية» A Plan of English Commerce و«التاجر الإنكليزي الكامل»The Complete English Tradesman و«مقالة حول المشروعات»An Essay Upon Projects عام (1697) وهو كتاب عن التجارة.وتظهر براعة ديفو مؤرخاً في كتابه «تاريخ اتحاد البرلمانَين الإنكليزي والاسكتلندي» History of the Union of the English and Scottish Parliaments. ومن رواياته «روبنسون كروزو» Robinson Crusoe عام (1719) و«مغامرت أخرى لروبنسون كروزو» Further Adventures of Robinson Crusoe و«مول فلاندرز» Moll Flanders عام (1722) و«يوميات سنة الوباء»Journal of the Plague Year عام (1722) و«الكولونيل جاك» Colonel Jack عام (1722) و«جولة في كل الجزيرة البريطانية العظمى»Tour Thro the Whole Island of Great Britain عام(1824)، واقترب من الرواية النفسية في روايته «روكسانا»Roxana عام(1724)، وصور عزلة الإنسان ووحدته في روايته «تأملات جدية لروبنسون كروزو» Serious Reflections of Robinson Crusoe.
أما الجديد الذي أدخله ديفو على الأدب الإنكليزي فهو تصويره للحياة اليومية، إذ إنه لم يعترف يوماً أن ما يكتبه هو من نسج الخيال بل سرد للحقائق. وعلى الرغم من أن الأسلوب الصحفي يطغى على كتاباته إلا أنه يعتمد التنوع في العرض والبساطة في الأسلوب. فروايته «روبنسون كروزو» تروي قصة البحار الاسكتلندي ألكسندر سلكرك Alexander Selkirk، وهي حافلة بتفاصيل دقيقة حول الحياة اليومية للبطل الذي أمضى ثمانية وعشرين عاماً في جزيرة نائية بعد غرق سفينته. ويمكن النظر إلى هذه الرواية كأسطورة حول تفوق الإنسان الأوربي المادي على غيره، حيث يستعبد كروزو ساكن الجزيرة الأصلي فرايدي Friday ويجعل منه خادماً له، وهي ظاهرة غلبت على العلاقات بين أوربا وبقية العالم لقرون تلت.
تركت حياة ديفو بصمتها على أدبه، وقد كان تنقله بين قاعات القصور وجدران السجون سجلاً لظروف عصره. وتجسد رواياته فكرة الخوف من الأخطار والبحث الدائم عن الأمان الذي يأتي متأخراً، فالبطل كروزو يتلقى الغفران والصفح عند عودته تائباً عن خطيئته المتمثلة في عصيان والديه؛ وبالمثل فإن الكولونيل جاك يرتكب الأخطاء باستمرار، لكنه ينجو من عاقبة أفعاله. أما في «مول فلاندرز» فإن البطلة تكافح كي تجد لنفسها مكاناً في مجتمع يحرمها من العيش الكريم ويدفعها إلى السرقة والدعارة.
أدخل ديفو إلى الرواية الإنكليزية اهتماماً بحياة الطبقات الدنيا من المجتمع في أثناء عرضه سيرة حياة الأشخاص الخارجين عن القانون، وتأثير البيئة في تشكيل الفرد، والعلاقة بين السلوك ودوافعه. وتتجلى مقدرة ديفو الروائية في شخصياته وفي تفاعل بعضها بالآخر، وهو ما تعده فرجينيا وولف[ر] الميزة الأساسية لأي كاتب روائي. أما نقطة الضعف في رواياته فهي افتقارها إلى بناء أو نظام متماسك.

عن موقع الموسوعة العربية
أحلام سلمان

Early life
Daniel Foe (his original name) was probably born in the parish of St. GilesCripplegate London. (Defoe later added the aristocratic-sounding "De" to his name and on occasion claimed descent from the family of De Beau Faux.)

The date and the place of his birth are uncertain, with sources often giving dates of 1659 to 1661.
تاريخ ومكان ولادته غير مؤكده والبعض يقول انه ولد عام 1659 وآخرون يقولن انه ولد عام 1661

His father James Foe, though a member of the Butchers' Company, was a tallowchandler.
كان ابوه يعمل لحاما

In Defoe's early life he experienced first-hand some of the most unusual occurrences in English history: in 1665, 70,000 were killed by the Great Plague of London.
مر في طفولته بعدة كوارث غريبه منها في العام 1665 قتل ما يزيد على 70000 شخص بمرض الطاعون الذي ضرب لندن

The Great Fire of London (1666) hit Defoe's neighbourhood hard, leaving only his and two other homes standing in the area.
حريق لندن العظيم احرق كل البيوت المجاوره لمنزله ولم يترك سوى منزله ومنزلين آخرين

In 1667, when Defoe was probably about seven years old, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and attacked Chatham.
وهو في سن السسابعه هاجم اسطول هولندي وعبر نهر التايمز المنطقة التي كان يسكن بها

By the time he was about ten years old, Defoe's mother Annie had died.[
عندما بلغ العاشرة ماتت امه اني.

Although Defoe was a Christian, he decided not to become a dissenting minister and entered the world of business as a general merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods and wine. Though his ambitions were great and he bought both a country estate and a ship (as well as civet cats to make perfume), he was rarely out of debt.
كان دائما مديون

In 1684, Defoe married Mary Tuffley, the daughter of a London merchant, and received a dowry of £3,700. With his debts and political trouble, their marriage was most likely a difficult one.
كان زواجه صعب بسبب مشاكله الماليه والسياسية لكنه استمر

It lasted, however, fifty years and together they had eight children, six of whom survived.
مات له ولدين

In 1685, he joined the ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion but gained a pardon by which he escaped the Bloody Assizes of Judge George Jeffreys.
شارك في الثورة لكنه حصل على عفو من الحكم القاسي الذي كان يوقعه القاضي

William III was crowned in 1688, and Foe immediately became one of his close allies and a secret agent.[Some of the new king's policies, however, led to conflict with France, thus damaging prosperous trade relationships for Defoe, who had established himself as a merchant.
In 1692, Defoe was arrested for payments of £700 (and his civets were seized), though his total debts may have amounted to £17,000. His laments were loud and he always defended unfortunate debtors but there is evidence that his financial dealings were not always honest.
سجن في العام 1692 بسبب ديونه وتم مصادرة املاكه

A natural target, Defoe's pamphleteering and political activities resulted in his arrest and placement in a pillory on 31 July 1703, principally on account of a pamphlet entitled The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church, purporting to argue for their extermination.
The pillory was a device made of a wooden or metal framework erected on a post, with holes for securing the head and hands, formerly used for punishment by public humiliation and often further physical abuse, sometimes lethal.[1] The pillory is related to the stocks.[]
في العام 1703 حكم عليه بأن قيد في ماكنة البولي وهي عبارة عن ماكن يتم تقيد السجين فيها لاهانة امام الجمهور

Though it was published anonymously, the true authorship was quickly discovered and Defoe was arrested.
تم سجنه مرة اخرى على اعتبار انه هو صاحب المقال الذي نشر ولو انه كان بدون توقيعه
According to legend, the publication of his poem Hymn to the Pillory caused his audience at the pillory to throw flowers instead of the customary harmful and noxious objects and to drink to his health.
يقال ان احدى قصائده جعلت الناس تلقي عليه ورود بدل الاجسام الصلبة وكانو يتبادلون الانخاب في صحته كنوع من التعبير عن اعجابهم به

The historicity of this story is questioned by most scholars, although John Robert Moore later said that "no man in England but Defoe ever stood in the pillory and later rose to eminence among his fellow men".
يقول احدهم انه لم يسبق ان تمكن شخص في انجلترا من العودة الى المجتمع بعد ان يتعرض لمثل تلك الاهانية وهي الحجز في ماكنه القصاص الا ديفو

After his three days in the pillory, Defoe went into Newgate Prison. Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, brokered his release in exchange for Defoe's co-operation as an intelligence agent for the Tories.
بعد قضائه 3 ايام في ماكنة الحجز تلك اودع السجن لكن تم اطلاق سراحه مقابل ان يعمل مخبرا لامر حزب المحافظين

Within a week of his release from prison, Defoe witnessed the Great Storm of 1703 which raged from 26 to 27 November.
It caused severe damage to London and Bristol and uprooted millions of trees and killed over 8,000 people, mostly at sea. The event became the subject of Defoe's The Storm (1704), a collection of witness accounts of the tempest. Many regard it as one of the world's first examples of modern journalism.[

In the same year he set up his periodical A Review of the Affairs of France which supported the Harley Ministry, chronicling the events of the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714). The Review ran three times a week without interruption until 1713. Defoe was amazed that a man as gifted as Harley left vital state papers lying in the open, and warned that he was almost inviting an unscrupulous clerk to commit treason; his warnings were fully justified by the William Gregg affair. When Harley was ousted from the ministry in 1708 Defoe continued writing it to support Godolphin, then again to support Harley and the Tories in the Tory ministry of 1710 to 1714. After the Tories fell from power with the death of Queen Anne, Defoe continued doing intelligence work for the Whig government, writing "Tory" pamphlets that actually undermined the Tory point of view.[
Not all of Defoe's pamphlet writing was political. One pamphlet (originally published anonymously) entitled A True Relation of the Apparition of One Mrs. Veal the Next Day after her Death to One Mrs. Bargrave at Canterbury the 8th of September, 1705, deals with interaction between the spiritual realm and the physical realm. It was most likely written in support of Charles Drelincourt's The Christian Defense against the Fears of Death (1651). It describes Mrs. Bargrave's encounter with an old friend Mrs. Veal, after she had died. It is clear from this piece and other writings, that while the political portion of Defoe's life was fairly dominant, it was by no means the only aspect.

مات دانيال ديفو عام 1731 وعلى الاغلب بينما كان مختفيا من مقرضيه ( دائنين)
يقال انه استخدم اكثر من 198 اسم مستعار

اهم احداث حياته:
يتم الام في سن الـ 10

استنتاج اولي: نلاحظ ان الثلاثة اصحاب الروايات اعلاه (1+2+3 ) هم:
- ايتام
- حياة فقر وعوز.
- تعرضوا للسجن واثنان منهم ابدعو رواياتهم داخل السجن ويمكن ان يكون الثالث قد فعل نفس الشيء لانه تعرض للسجن مرارا لا بل ان طريقة سجنه هي اصعب بكثير من سابقيه حيث وضع في ماكنه من الحديد والخشب امام الجمهور ليلقي عليه الماره الاجسام الصلبة ثم سجن.
- بالإضافة إلى أن دانيال ديفو كان يعاني من ثِقل الديون طول حياته ( مشاركة من الاستاذه امل محمد).

المشاركة الأصلية كتبت بواسطة ايوب صابر (المشاركة 83113) استنتاج اولي: نلاحظ ان الثلاثة اصحاب الروايات اعلاه (1+2+3 ) هم: - ايتام - حياة فقرة وعوز. - تعرضوا للسجن واثنان منهم ابدعو رواياتهم داخل السجن ويمكن ان يكون الثالث قد فعل نفس الشيء لانه تعرض للسجن مرارا لا بل ان طريقة سجنه هي اصعب بكثير من سابقيه حيث وضع في ماكنه من الحديد والخشب امام الجمهور ليلقي عليه الماره الاجسام الصلبة ثم سجن.

المشاركة الأصلية كتبت بواسطة ايوب صابر (المشاركة 83215) 4 ـ رحلات جيلفر للمؤلف جوناثان سويفت. ننتقل الان الى البند الرائعه الرابعه لنتعرف على سر الروعه في هذه الرواية ولدى الكاتب سوفت: رواية * رحلات جلفر * تأليف: جوناثان سويفت http://www.neelwafurat.com/images/lb...110/110205.gif قل من القراء من لم يسمع بجلفر ورحلاته. فحكاية الرجل الذي نزل بارض كل سكانها لا يتجاوزون اصبع اليد طولا، ثم نزل مرة اخرى بارض يبلغ الواحد من اهلها طول برج كنيسة، قد اصبحت من القصص المحببة في مختلف ارجاء العالم، ولخصت بشتى الصور، ووضعت في كتب المطالعة للاطفال، ووجد فيها الصغار والكبار جميعا متعة سخية للخيال... والحق ان "رحلات جلفر" هي من اخصب الكتب خيالا، ولكننا حين نقدمها اليوم كاملة باللغة العربية، لا نشك في ان القارئ سيجد فيها متعة الخيال الشائق والفن الرفيع، ومتعة الفكر النفاذ. وشهرة سويفت بين معاصريه من الكتاب الانجليز في النصف الاول من القرن الثامن عشر، تناظر، من بعض الوجوه، شهرة فولتير بين الكتاب الفرنسيين في النصف الثاني من هذا القرن. فمع ان سويفت كان من رجال الكنيسة وفولتير عدوا للكنيسة، سويفت اميل الى المحافظة وفولتير من آباء الثورة، فكلاهما كان وليد عصر العقل، وكلاهما سدد الى السلطات والنظم والاخلاق في عصره سهام النقد اللاذع. وقد كان فولتير ميالا الى الميتافيزيقا وكان الهدف الاكبر لسخريته هو السلطة، وبخاصة سلطة الكنيسة، اما سويفت فلم يكن يطيق النظر الفلسفي المجرد، وكان نقده شاملا للحياة الانسانية في مختلف مظاهرها على السواء، وكان اشد مرارة وعنفا حتى لكأنما الانسان نفسه هو هدف سخريته. ومن اجل هذا عد سويفت عند بعض النقاد كاتبا مرا حاقدا على البشرية ويستشهد هؤلاء على الخصوص بالقسم الرابع من كتابه "رحلات جلفر" حيث يصور البشرية في صورة حيوان قذر خبيث مطبوع على الشر، ويفضل عليه مجتمعا من الخيل الكريمة العاقلة.. ولعل هذا القسم بالذات هو ما اسخط اهل زمانه من الكتاب كلهم، وجعل كثيرا من النقاد "الانسانيين" في اواخر القرن التاسع عشر ينفرون من الكاتب.

المشاركة الأصلية كتبت بواسطة ايوب صابر (المشاركة 83288) الاستاذه ريم بدر الدين تقولين" بداية أحيي هذا الانتقاء العشوائي المتميز بحق. عندي أولا ملاحظات على عناوين الروايات في ترجمتها العربية. الرسالة القرمزية /ناثانيال هاوثورن في الحقيقة لدى قراءة الرواية سنكتشف أنه / الحرف القرمزي و ليس الرسالة ذا لورد اوف ذا رينغز : الترجمة العربية سيد الخواتم لورد الذباب /فيلدينغ سيد الذباب بالترجمة العربية، هذا اولا. ثانية هل القائمة مغلقة أم أننا نستطيع القيام بترشيحات أخرى ؟ - اولا اشكرك على مرورك وهذه المداخله القيمة والمساعدة في تصحيح الاخطاء في الترجمة. لقد لاحظت هذه الاخطاء في اسم الرواية الثانية حيث ترجمت "تقدم الرحلة" وهي في اللغة الانجليزية pilgrim progress واعتقد ان ترجمتها يجب ان تكون البحث عن الحقيقة فهذا هو موضوع الرواية... قصة شخص يبحث عن الحقيقة...وهي ليست تقدم الرحلة وليست رحلة حج او اي من الاسماء الاخرى. -لكن لا بد من التوضيح انني لم انتق القائمة فهي متوفره على الانترنت وقد نقالتها كما هي ولا اعتقد ان القائمة الاصلية جهد فردي لشخص واحد وقد قرأت في مكان ما انها جهد جماعي لاحدى الجامعات البرياطانية وقد وضعت ضمن اسس معينة ومحادية ترعى عدة شروط مثل الانتشار والاثر ولكن ليس لموضوعة اليتم والفقر والحزن دور في الاختيار...وكان لا بد من الاختيار العشوائي للقائمة ذلك حتى تظل الدراسة موضوعيه وغر متحيزه. - ثانيا سوف اكون في منتهى السرور اذا ما جعلنا هذه الساحة ساحة للتحليل والحوار وباراز عناصر الجمال والعبقرية في الاعمال لعل المهتمين ينتفعون من مثل هذه التحليلات...اهلا وسهلا بك وبكل من يرغب في المشاركة ..فالمجال مفتوح وشكرا جزلا لك وللاخت امل محمد التي تقدم الدعم والمساندة لي من اول يوم. - ثالثا كونك استاذه في الترجمة لماذا لا تقدمي العون والمساعدة وربما المشاركة اذا توفر لك الوقت لهذا المشورع المهم: http://www.mnaabr.com/vb/showthread.php?t=5818

المشاركة الأصلية كتبت بواسطة ايوب صابر (المشاركة 83215) 4 ـ رحلات جيلفر للمؤلف جوناثان سويفت. ننتقل الان الى البند الرائعه الرابعه لنتعرف على سر الروعه في هذه الرواية ولدى الكاتب سوفت: رواية * رحلات جلفر * تأليف: جوناثان سويفت http://www.neelwafurat.com/images/lb...110/110205.gif قل من القراء من لم يسمع بجلفر ورحلاته. فحكاية الرجل الذي نزل بارض كل سكانها لا يتجاوزون اصبع اليد طولا، ثم نزل مرة اخرى بارض يبلغ الواحد من اهلها طول برج كنيسة، قد اصبحت من القصص المحببة في مختلف ارجاء العالم، ولخصت بشتى الصور، ووضعت في كتب المطالعة للاطفال، ووجد فيها الصغار والكبار جميعا متعة سخية للخيال... والحق ان "رحلات جلفر" هي من اخصب الكتب خيالا، ولكننا حين نقدمها اليوم كاملة باللغة العربية، لا نشك في ان القارئ سيجد فيها متعة الخيال الشائق والفن الرفيع، ومتعة الفكر النفاذ. وشهرة سويفت بين معاصريه من الكتاب الانجليز في النصف الاول من القرن الثامن عشر، تناظر، من بعض الوجوه، شهرة فولتير بين الكتاب الفرنسيين في النصف الثاني من هذا القرن. فمع ان سويفت كان من رجال الكنيسة وفولتير عدوا للكنيسة، سويفت اميل الى المحافظة وفولتير من آباء الثورة، فكلاهما كان وليد عصر العقل، وكلاهما سدد الى السلطات والنظم والاخلاق في عصره سهام النقد اللاذع. وقد كان فولتير ميالا الى الميتافيزيقا وكان الهدف الاكبر لسخريته هو السلطة، وبخاصة سلطة الكنيسة، اما سويفت فلم يكن يطيق النظر الفلسفي المجرد، وكان نقده شاملا للحياة الانسانية في مختلف مظاهرها على السواء، وكان اشد مرارة وعنفا حتى لكأنما الانسان نفسه هو هدف سخريته. ومن اجل هذا عد سويفت عند بعض النقاد كاتبا مرا حاقدا على البشرية ويستشهد هؤلاء على الخصوص بالقسم الرابع من كتابه "رحلات جلفر" حيث يصور البشرية في صورة حيوان قذر خبيث مطبوع على الشر، ويفضل عليه مجتمعا من الخيل الكريمة العاقلة.. ولعل هذا القسم بالذات هو ما اسخط اهل زمانه من الكتاب كلهم، وجعل كثيرا من النقاد "الانسانيين" في اواخر القرن التاسع عشر ينفرون من الكاتب.

- اذا هو كاتب بارع.
- ينتهج من خلال السخرية القاسية و الخيال المغرق في غرائبيته المؤلمة أداة لهز ضمير المجتمع .
- البحث عن حل لأزماته و مشاكله.
- رأيت في سويفت هلعا من مجتمع يتجه نحو المادية والظلم .
- بكتاباته يحاول أن يقرع الجرس .
- رأيته برغم قسوته في كتاباته إنسانيا للغاية.

Jonathan Swift (30 November 1667 – 19 October 1745) was an Anglo-Irish[satirist, essayist, political pamphleteer (first for the Whigs, then for the Tories), poet and cleric who became Dean of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin.

He is remembered for works such as Gulliver's Travels, A Modest Proposal, A Journal to Stella, Drapier's Letters, The Battle of the Books, An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity, and A Tale of a Tub. Swift is probably the foremost prose satirist in the English language, and is less well known for his poetry. Swift originally published all of his works under pseudonyms—such as Lemuel Gulliver, Isaac Bickerstaff, M.B. Drapier—or anonymously.

كثيرا ما كان يستخدم اسماء مستعارة عند كتاباته
He is also known for being a master of two styles of satire: the Horatian and Juvenalian styles.

Youth
Jonathan Swift was born at No. 7, Hoey's Court, Dublin, the city residence of his uncle and benefactor Godwin Swift (1628-1695), of Swifts Heath House, Co. Kilkenny. He was the second child and only son of Jonathan Swift (1640-1667) and his wife Abigail Erick (or Herrick), of Frisby-on-the-Wreake. His father, a native of Goodrich, Herefordshire, accompanied his brothers to Ireland to seek their fortunes in law after their Royalist father's estate was brought to ruin during the English Civil War. Swift's father died at Dublin before he was born, and his mother returned to England.
He was left in the care of his influential uncle, Godwin, a close friend and confidante of Sir John Temple, whose son later employed Swift as his secretary.
مات ابوه قبل ولادته في دبلن ايرالندا - وامه تركته عند عمه وعادت الى انجلترا

Swift's family had several interesting literary connections: His grandmother, Elizabeth (Dryden) Swift, was the niece of Sir Erasmus Dryden, grandfather of the poet John Dryden. The same grandmother's aunt, Katherine (Throckmorton) Dryden, was a first cousin of the wife of Sir Walter Raleigh. His great-great grandmother, Margaret (Godwin) Swift, was the sister of Francis Godwin, author of The Man in the Moone which influenced parts of Swift's Gulliver's Travels. His uncle, Thomas Swift, married a daughter of the poet and playwright Sir William Davenant, a godson of William Shakespeare.
His uncle Godwin took primary responsibility for the young Jonathan, sending him with one of his cousins to Kilkenny College (also attended by the philosopher George Berkeley). In 1682 he attended Dublin University (Trinity College, Dublin), financed by Godwin's son, Willoughby, from where he received his B.A. in 1686, and developed his friendship with William Congreve. Swift was studying for his Master's degree when political troubles in Ireland surrounding the Glorious Revolution forced him to leave for England in 1688, where his mother helped him get a position as secretary and personal assistant of Sir William Temple at Moor Park, Farnham. Temple was an English diplomat who, having arranged the Triple Alliance of 1668, retired from public service to his country estate to tend his gardens and write his memoirs. Gaining the confidence of his employer, Swift "was often trusted with matters of great importance."[cite this quote] Within three years of their acquaintance, Temple had introduced his secretary to William III, and sent him to London to urge the King to consent to a bill for triennial Parliaments.

When Swift took up his residence at Moor Park, he met Esther Johnson, then eight years old, the fatherless daughter of one of the household servants. Swift acted as her tutor and mentor, giving her the nickname "Stella", and the two maintained a close but ambiguous relationship for the rest of Esther's life.
Swift left Temple in 1690 for Ireland because of his health, but returned to Moor Park the following year.
التقى بعد ان سافر الى لندن بفتاة كان عمرها 8 سنوات عندها وهي يتمة وابنة احد الخدم في البيت فاخذ سوف يتعلمها واطلق عليها اسم ستيلا واحتفظ الاثنين بعلاقة غير مفهومة طوال حياة ابستر

The illness, fits of vertigo or giddiness—now known to be Ménière's disease—would continue to plague Swift throughout his life.

اصيب بمرض ظل يعاني منه طول حياته
During this second stay with Temple, Swift received his M.A. from Hertford College, Oxford in 1692. Then, apparently despairing of gaining a better position through Temple's patronage, Swift left Moor Park to become an ordained priest in the Established Church of Ireland and in 1694 he was appointed to the prebend of Kilroot in the Diocese of Connor, with his parish located at Kilroot, near Carrickfergus in County Antrim.

Swift appears to have been miserable in his new position, being isolated in a small, remote community far from the centres of power and influence.
تولى وظيفه في منطقة نائية وكان تعيس لبعدة عن مناطق النفوذ لكنه وقع في غرام جين هناك
While at Kilroot, however, Swift may well have become romantically involved with Jane Waring. A letter from him survives, offering to remain if she would marry him and promising to leave and never return to Ireland if she refused. She presumably refused, because Swift left his post and returned to England and Temple's service at Moor Park in 1696, and he remained there until Temple's death. There he was employed in helping to prepare Temple's memoirs and correspondence for publication. During this time Swift wrote The Battle of the Books, a satire responding to critics of Temple's Essay upon Ancient and Modern Learning (1690). Battle was however not published until 1704.

On 27 January 1699 Temple died. Swift stayed on briefly in England to complete the editing of Temple's memoirs, and perhaps in the hope that recognition of his work might earn him a suitable position in England. However, Swift's work made enemies of some of Temple's family and friends who objected to indiscretions included in the memoirs.
عندما مات تمبل ساعد في اعداد مذكراته وقد اكسبه ذلك بعض الاعداء

His next move was to approach King William directly, based on his imagined connection through Temple and a belief that he had been promised a position. This failed so miserably that he accepted the lesser post of secretary and chaplain to the Earl of Berkeley, one of the Lords Justices of Ireland. However, when he reached Ireland he found that the secretaryship had already been given to another. But he soon obtained the living of Laracor, Agher, and Rathbeggan, and the prebend of Dunlavin in St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin.

At Laracor, a mile or two from Trim, County Meath, and twenty miles (32 km) from Dublin, Swift ministered to a congregation of about fifteen people, and had abundant leisure for cultivating his garden, making a canal (after the Dutch fashion of Moor Park), planting willows, and rebuilding the vicarage. As chaplain to Lord Berkeley, he spent much of his time in Dublin and traveled to London frequently over the next ten years. In 1701, Swift published, anonymously, a political pamphlet, A Discourse on the Contests and Dissentions in Athens and Rome.

Writer
In February 1702, Swift received his Doctor of Divinity degree from Trinity College, Dublin. That spring he traveled to England and returned to Ireland in October, accompanied by Esther Johnson—now twenty years old—and his friend Rebecca Dingley, another member of William Temple's household. There is a great mystery and controversy over Swift's relationship with Esther Johnson nicknamed "Stella". Many[who?] hold that they were secretly married in 1716.
يعتقد البعض انه تزوج من تلك اليتيمة عام 1716 ولكت علاقته بها ظلت عامضة

During his visits to England in these years Swift published A Tale of a Tub and The Battle of the Books (1704) and began to gain a reputation as a writer. This led to close, lifelong friendships with Alexander Pope, John Gay, and John Arbuthnot, forming the core of the Martinus Scriblerus Club (founded in 1713).
Swift became increasingly active politically in these years. From 1707 to 1709 and again in 1710, Swift was in London, unsuccessfully urging upon the Whig administration of Lord Godolphin the claims of the Irish clergy to the First-Fruits and Twentieths ("Queen Anne's Bounty"), which brought in about £2,500 a year, already granted to their brethren in England. He found the opposition Tory leadership more sympathetic to his cause and Swift was recruited to support their cause as editor of the Examiner when they came to power in 1710. In 1711, Swift published the political pamphlet "The Conduct of the Allies," attacking the Whig government for its inability to end the prolonged war with France. The incoming Tory government conducted secret (and illegal) negotiations with France, resulting in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) ending the War of the Spanish Succession.
Swift was part of the inner circle of the Tory government, and often acted as mediator between Henry St. John (Viscount Bolingbroke) the secretary of state for foreign affairs (1710–15) and Robert Harley (Earl of Oxford) lord treasurer and prime minister (1711–1714). Swift recorded his experiences and thoughts during this difficult time in a long series of letters to Esther Johnson, later collected and published as The Journal to Stella. The animosity between the two Tory leaders eventually led to the dismissal of Harley in 1714. With the death of Queen Anne and accession of George I that year, the Whigs returned to power and the Tory leaders were tried for treason for conducting secret negotiations with France.

Also during these years in London, Swift became acquainted with the Vanhomrigh family and became involved with one of the daughters, Esther, yet another fatherless young woman and another ambiguous relationship to confuse Swift's biographers.
صار على علاقة غامضة مع فتاة اخرى يتيمة اسمها ايضا ايسثر مما ادى الى سوء فهم بالنسبة لمذكراته واكلق عليها اسم فانيسيا وكتب قصيدة لعبت فيها دور شخصية رئيسية في القصيدة
Swift furnished Esther with the nickname "Vanessa" and she features as one of the main characters in his poem Cadenus and Vanessa. The poem and their correspondence suggests that Esther was infatuated with Swift, and that he may have reciprocated her affections, only to regret this and then try to break off the relationship. Esther followed Swift to Ireland in 1714, where there appears to have been a confrontation, possibly involving Esther Johnson.

Esther Vanhomrigh died in 1723 at the age of 35. Another lady with whom he had a close but less intense relationship was Anne Long, a toast of the Kit-Cat Club.
ماتت ايسثر فانهمرج عان 1723 عن عمر 35 سنه ولكن يبدو انه صار على علاقة مع فتاة اخرى تسمى آن لونج

Maturity
Before the fall of the Tory government, Swift hoped that his services would be rewarded with a church appointment in England. However, Queen Anne appeared to have taken a dislike to Swift and thwarted these efforts. The best position his friends could secure for him was the Deanery of St. Patrick's, Dublin. With the return of the Whigs, Swift's best move was to leave England and he returned to Ireland in disappointment, a virtual exile, to live "like a rat in a hole".
عندما فشل في الحصول على وظيفة في كنيسة لندن بسبب عدم موافقة الملكة عاد الى ايرلندا يتدب حظه وكأنه في منفى ليعيش كما يعيش الفأر في جحره

Once in Ireland, however, Swift began to turn his pamphleteering skills in support of Irish causes, producing some of his most memorable works: Proposal for Universal Use of Irish Manufacture (1720), Drapier's Letters (1724), and A Modest Proposal (1729), earning him the status of an Irish patriot.
Also during these years, he began writing his masterpiece, Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World, in Four Parts, by Lemuel Gulliver, first a surgeon, and then a captain of several ships, better known as Gulliver's Travels.
في هذه الفترة كتب رائعته رحلات جلفر

Much of the material reflects his political experiences of the preceding decade. For instance, the episode in which the giant Gulliver puts out the Lilliputian palace fire by urinating on it can be seen as a metaphor for the Tories' illegal peace treaty; having done a good thing in an unfortunate manner. In 1726 he paid a long-deferred visit to London, taking with him the manuscript of Gulliver's Travels. During his visit he stayed with his old friends Alexander Pope, John Arbuthnot and John Gay, who helped him arrange for the anonymous publication of his book. First published in November 1726, it was an immediate hit, with a total of three printings that year and another in early 1727. French, German, and Dutch translations appeared in 1727, and pirated copies were printed in Ireland
نجح كتابه نجاحا ساحقا
.
Swift returned to England one more time in 1727 and stayed with Alexander Pope once again. The visit was cut short when Swift received word that Esther Johnson was dying and rushed back home to be with her.
في عام 1727 وصله خبر ان صديقته ايسثر جونسون على فراش الموت وعاد الى ايرلندا ليكون الى جوارها وقد ماتت في عام 1728
On 28 January 1728, Esther Johnson died; Swift had prayed at her bedside, even composing prayers for her comfort. Swift could not bear to be present at the end, but on the night of her death he began to write his The Death of Mrs. Johnson.
كان يصلى لها الى جوار سريرها ولكن موتها كان صعبا جدا عليه وفي ليلة موتها بدأ يكتب " موت السيدة جونسن"
He was too ill to attend the funeral at St. Patrick's. Many years later, a lock of hair, assumed to be Esther Johnson's, was found in his desk, wrapped in a paper bearing the words, "Only a woman's hair."

Death became a frequent feature in Swift's life from this point. In1731 he wrote Verses on the Death of Dr. Swift, his own obituary published in 1739.
اصبح الموت فكرة تتردد كثيرا في كتاباته وفي عام 1731 كتب اشعار عن وفاة د. سوفت حيث نعى نفسه

In 1732, his good friend and collaborator John Gay died
في عام 1732 مات صديقة جون جاي .

In 1735, John Arbuthnot, another friend from his days in London, died
في عام 1735 مات صديقه الاخر جون اربثور .

In 1738 Swift began to show signs of illness, and in 1742 he appears to have suffered a stroke, losing the ability to speak and realizing his worst fears of becoming mentally disabled. ("I shall be like that tree," he once said, "I shall die at the top.")
في عام 1738 بدأ يظهر عليه علامات المرض وقد اصيب بجلطه افقدته القدره على الحديث في عام 1742 وقد كان اشد ما يخشاه ان يفقد عقله

To protect him from unscrupulous hangers on, who had begun to prey on the great man, his closest companions had him declared of "unsound mind and memory."
لحماية اعلن اصدقائه انه اصيح فاقد للذاكره ثم اعلن انه اصيب بالجنون
However, it was long believed by many that Swift was really insane at this point. In his book Literature and Western Man, author J.B. Priestley even cites the final chapters of Gulliver's Travels as proof of Swift's approaching "insanity".

رواية "توم جونز» لفيلدنغ: إننا صنيعة ظروفنا الاجتماعية
السبت, 08 مايو 2010

وهي، في هذا، وليس في احداثها، ولا في بنيانها، على رغم أهمية هذه العناصر، أثرت كثيراً في معظم ما كتب من أدب انكليزي بعدها. غير ان فيلدنغ كان يصرّ دائماً على ان ينفي عن نفسه، وأدبه، طابع الريادة حتى في هذا المجال، اذ كان لا يفوته ان يشير الى انه انما يدين لثلاثة من الكتاب سبقوه وهم: اللاتيني لوسيانوس والانكليزي سويفت والاسباني سرفانتس، وخصوصاً في مجال الكتابة المرحة، والكتابة التي تعالج أصعب المواقف وأكثرها ايلاماً معالجة ملحمية. وفي هذا اعتبر أدب فيلدنغ - وعلى رأسه رواية «توم جونز» - فاتحة الأدب الروائي الحديث في بريطانيا، وربما في العالم.

*ليس من السهل تلخيص احداث رواية وزع مؤلفها احداثها على ثمانية عشر كتاباً تشكل في مجموعها سعة ستة مجلدات سميكة. فهي عمل «بيكاري» حافل بالشخصيات والحبكات والخبطات المسرحية، يتخذ من المجتمع المدني ميداناً له، ويحاول ان يكون صورة متكاملة عن ذلك المجتمع وأخلاقياته في زمن صعود الطبقة الوسطى مع ازدهار الثورة الصناعية، وفي زمن بدأ الفكر فيه يجد ميادين لتحركه في حيز العلاقات الاجتماعية، معطياً الفرد ومشكلاته مكانة أساسية. وفي المقابل يمكن رسم الخلفية التي تدور فيها الأحداث. وهذه الخلفية يشغلها أساساً، ذلك الطفل الوليد الذي يعثر عليه أرمل ثري يعيش في سامرست، هو السيد آلوورثي، في فراشه ذات مساء. يفتن السيد بالوليد ويقرر ان يتبناه، وهو يعتقد ان أمه خادمة تدعى جيني جونز. ومن هنا يسميه توم جونز. واذ يسوي آلوورثي المسألة بطرد المدرس باتريدج الذي يظن انه هو الأب يختفي باتريدج مع الخادمة. فيما تتزوج شقيقة آلوورثي التي تعيش معه بريدجت من الكابتن بليفيل وينجبان ولداً هو ماستر بليفيل يربى سوية مع توم. وينمو الوالدان معاً، حتى تعود الرواية وتلتقطهما بعد ذلك بتسعة عشر عاماً، حين يكتشف توم ان حبه الطفولي لجارته الطفلة صوفيا، أضحى حباً بالغاً. لكن صوفيا منذورة للزواج من ماستر... وهنا تبدأ الاحداث بالتعقد، والمؤامرات بالتركّب. وينتهي هذا الجزء بدفع آلوورثي الى طرد توم من المنزل. فيفعل ما يوقع توم في يأس شديد اذ فقد في آن واحد عطف ابيه بالتبني ومسرح طفولته وحبه. فيقرر ان يتوجه الى بريستول للارتحال بحراً. ولكن يحدث في الآن نفسه ان تهرب صوفيا لتقيم عند قريبة لها في لندن. وهكذا تنتقل الأحداث كلها الى العاصمة التي يصلها توم بدوره. لكن توم، على رغم حبه لصوفيا وحزنه الشديد، لا يتورع عن مواصلة حياة لهو وشبق جنسي كان بدأها باكراً، وجعلته يرغب في كل امرأة يراها. وهكذا يحدث له ذات يوم ان يرتبط بعلاقة مع سيدة سرعان ما يتبين انها هي جيني جونز، التي يفترض انها أمه الحقيقية التي هربت بعد ولادته. فيغرق توم اذ يعرف هذا، في يأس شديد وقد خيل اليه انه انما ارتكب معصية حب المحارم. غير ان الحقيقة تكون في مكان آخر، لأن توم سيعرف لاحقاً ان امه الحقيقية ليست جيني، بل بريدجت شقيقة آلوورثي، التي تعترف لشقيقها بكل شيء وهي على فراش الموت، مؤكدة ان الوالد الحقيقي لتوم هو شاب التقته ذات يوم ثم ارتحل ومات بعد ذلك.

وعلى رغم ما انكشف من ان توم وماستر أخوان غير شقيقين، فإن ماستر يواصل مؤامراته ضد توم طمعاً في الحصول وحده على ثروة آلوورثي وعلى فؤاد صوفيا. ولكن يحدث أن يصحو ضمير واحد من الذين شاركوا ماستر في مؤامراته ضد توم، ويرسل رسالة مطولة الى السيد آلوورثي يحكي فيها كل شيء واصفاً كيف ان ماستر بليفيل يتآمر ضد توم منذ الطفولة، وأن تلك المعاملة هي التي جعلت توم يسلك دروب الشر والمجون. وهكذا تبدأ النهاية السعيدة: آلوورثي يعفو عن توم جونز ويجعله وريثه الوحيد. وصوفيا تعلن حبها لتوم بعدما فهمت ان كل العبث الذي عاشه والمجون الذي كان من سماته، ليسا سوى النتيجة الظالمة للظروف التي عاشها. وتنتهي الحكاية بانتصار الخير على الشر.

*لم يكن من قبيل الصدفة ان ينبه فيلدنغ قارئه منذ البداية الى أن «الاحداث والأمور التي اصفها هنا انما هي صورة للطبيعة الانسانية»، مؤكداً في مكان آخر أن «الجهد الذي بذلته في هذه الحكاية انما كان قصدي منه ان ادعو الناس الى الطيبة والبراءة». والحال ان الطيبة والبراءة هما السمتان الاساسيتان اللتان تطبعان شخصية توم جونز. وواضح هنا ان فيلدنغ انما اراد ان يرسم الصورة التي تؤثر بها الظروف الاجتماعية في سلوك الناس.

وفي هذا المعنى يكمن جزء أساسي من جوهر هذا العمل الذي سيعتبره كتّاب مثل تشارلز ديكنز وويليام ثاكري، مدرستهم الحقيقية، بمعنى ان الأدب الانكليزي بعد «توم جونز» لم يعد في امكانه ان يتغاضى عن دور العوامل الاجتماعية في رسم الاخلاقيات والأحداث. وكان هذا بدوره جديداً.

وسيصبح منذ ذلك الحين واحداً من أعمدة الأعمال الفنية، وممهداً لثورة التحليل - نفسية التي ستجعل العوامل الاجتماعية العنصر الأساسي في تكوين العوامل النفسية، لكن هذه حكاية أخرى.

*حين كتب هنري فيلدنغ «توم جونز» كان في الأربعين من عمره، هو المولود في العام 1707، في سامرست، مثل بطله توم جونز. وتربى فيلدنغ في تلك المنطقة،لكنه أرسل بعد ذلك الى ايتون، حين تزوج ابوه بعد وفاة أمه وهو في الحادية عشرة من عمره. وبعد ذلك بأقل من عشر سنوات بدأ توجهه الى الكتابة، بتشجيع من بعض اصدقائه.

وكان من أول أعماله التي عرفت، مسرحية «الحب تحت اقنعة عدة» (1728) التي قدّمت وعرفت نجاحاً كبيراً. ومنذ ذلك الحين لم يتوقف فيلدنغ عن الكتابة، المسرحية خصوصاً، متأثراً بموليير. كما انتقل من الكتابة الى المسرح الى كتابة الروايات، وكان يتخذ من الأشخاص المقربين اليه، نماذج للشخصيات التي يرسمها في أعماله. وكان الطابع المسيطر على أعماله ساخراً الى حد اثارة غضب الآخرين. وهو في الوقت نفسه عمل في القضاء وفي الصحافة. وكان النجاح حليفه في كل ما يحقق، ما جعل كبار كتاب زمنه اعداء له.

ومن ابرز أعمال فيلدنغ، الى «توم جونز» رواية «اميليا» و «باميلا» وكتاب رحلته الى البرتغال «رحلتي في لشبونه» و «توم تامب» و «مأساة المآسي» التي سخر فيها من كتّاب معاصرين له، و «دون كيشوت» التي جعلها تحية الى «استاذه» سرفانتس. رحل فيلدنغ في العام 1754 في لشبونة التي احبها كثيراً وكتب عنها.
alariss@alhayat.com

- شكرا للاستاذ ابراهيم العريس على هذه القراءة الرائعة والتي تلقي الضوء على كل جوانب العمل وتربط بين حياة الكاتب وروايته. وتخدم موضوع هذه الدراسة بشكل رائع. وليس غريبا ان يكون الكاتب هنا قد تأثر بكاتبين ايتام قبله كما انه يتيم الام وهو في سن الحادية عشره وتزوج ابوه بعد ذلك فكان يتيم الاب والام عمليا كونه عاش بعيد عنهما.

ونجد ان كتب بأسلوب ساخر ايضا واتخذ من الشخصيات التي حوله اساس لشخصيات رواياته مما يرجح بأن الكثير من توم جوز اليتيم بطل الرواية هو على الاغلب الكاتب نفسه.

وربما من المهم لفت الانتباه الى موضوع الرواية فهي بمثابة صراع بين الخير والشر ويتنصر الخير في نفس الانسان في النهاية على الشر. وقد يكون اختيار الروائي لهذه الفكرة قد ساهم في جعلها من بين ام الروايات العالمية.

ولد في عائلة ارستقراطية

Fielding grew up on his parents farm at East Stour, Dotset. His mother died when Fielding was eleven, and when his father remarried, Henry was sent to Eton College (1719-1724), where he learned to love ancient Greek and Roman literature.

During this period he also befriended George, later Lord, Lyttelton, and William Pitt, later Lord Chatham. To Lyttelton, his old school friend, who helped him from the late 1740s, Fielding dedicated the novel THE HISTORY OF TOM JONES, A FOUNDLING (1749). After Eton, he attempted to elope with his cousin Sarah Andrew.
Encouraged by his cousin, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Fielding began his literary career in London. In 1728 he wrote two plays, of which LOVE IN SEVERAL MASQUES, performed at Drury Lane, ran only four nights. In the same year he went to the University of Leiden in the Netherlands, enlarging his knowledge of classical literature. After returning to England, he devoted himself to writing for the stage. Under the pseudonym 'Sciblerus Secundus' he wrote comic-satirical burlesques, which made him the most successful playwrigh for several years in the British theatre. Fielding also became a manager of the Little Theatre in the Haymarket. In 1730 he had four plays produced, among them TOM THUMB, which is his most famous and popular drama, particularly in its revised version, THE TRAGEDY OF TRAGEDIES (1731). According to a story, it made Swift laugh for the second time in his life. In 1736 Fielding took over the management of the New Theatre, writing for it among others the satirical comedy PASQUIN. For several years Fielding's life was happy and prosperous.
However, Fielding's sharp burlesques satirizing the government gained the attention of the prime minister Sir Robert Walpole and Fielding's activities in theater was ended by Theatrical Licensing Act - directed primarily at him. In search for an alternative career he became editor of the magazine Champion, an opposition journal. After studies of law Fielding was called in 1740 to the bar.

Because of increasing illness – he suffered from gout and asthma – Fielding was eventually unable to continue as a Westminster justice.
كان يعاني من مرض الازمة واثر ذلك على عمله في مجال القضاء فلم يستطع ان يستمر فيه

Physically Fielding was impressive, he was over six feet tall, with a "frame of a body large, and remarkably robust," as his first biographer, Arthur Murphy recorded. He was also known as a man with a great appetite for food, alcohol and tobacco; the joys of the rich diet he celebrated in the song 'The Roast Beef of Old England'.
Between the years 1729 and 1737 Fielding wrote 25 plays but he acclaimed critical notice with his novels, The History of Tom Jones, A Foundling, and THE HISTORY OF THE ADVENTURES OF JOSEPH ANDREWS (1742), a parody of Richardson's Pamela (1740). Although Fielding said in Tom Jones, "That monstrous animal, a husband and wife", he married in 1734 Charlotte Cradock, who became his model for Sophia Western in Tom Jones and for the heroine of AMELIA, the author's last novel.
كتب في روايته توم جونز وصافا الزواج على انه ( ذلك الحيون الوحشي) لكنه تزوج .

It was written according to Fielding "to promote the cause of virtue and to expose some of the most glaring evils, as well public as private, which at present infect the country..." In the story an army officer is imprisoned. His virtuous wife resists all temptations and stays faithful to him. With Charlotte Fielding enjoyed ten years of happiness until her death in 1744, leaving him with a small son and daughter. Fielding had called her "one from whom I draw all the solid Comfort of my life."

Fielding's improvidence led to long periods of considerable poverty, but he did not drift into taking bribes.
عاش حياة فقر ولكنه لم يأخذ رشاوي

After Walpole had been replaced by another prime minister, Fielding came to the defense of the Establishment. As a reward for his governmental journalism he was made justice of the peace for the City of Westminster in 1748 and for the county of Middlesex in 1749. However, the position was unpaid, and thus not much admired.
عين قاضي سلام لميدنة وستمنستر لكنه كان وظيفه من غير اجر ولذلك لم يكن شغوفا به
Together with his half brother Sir John Fielding, assistant Saunders Welch, and clerk Joshua Brodgen, he established a new tradition of justice and suppression of crime in London, organizing a detective force (with a salary), that later developed into Scotland Yard.

Fielding's writings became more socially orientated – he opposed among others public hangings.
عارض الاعدام امام الجمهور

From the court in Bow Street he continued his struggle against corruption and and saw successfully implemented a plan for breaking up the criminal gangs who were then flourishing in London. One of his most controversial cases was the riot after which a sailor was executed. As a vehicle for his ideas he used The Covent-Garden Journal.

When the author's health was failing and he was forced to use crutches, he went with his wife, Margaret Collier, and one of his daughters to Portugal to recuperate in the milder air. His health badly damaged, Fielding died on October 8, 1754, in Lisbon. Fielding's travel book, THE JOURNAL OF A VOYAGE TO LISBON, in which he recorded the unhappy journey, appeared posthumously in 1755.
ساءت صحته بشكل كبير واضطر للسفر الى البرتغال للعلاج في جو افضل لصحته ولكن صحته ساءت ومات عام 1754 في لشبون عاصمة البرتغال

The History of Tom Jones, A Foundling, was enthusiastically revived by the general public, if not by Richardson, Dr. Johnson and other literary figures. Coleridge declared that the plot of Tom Jones was one of the three perfect plots in all literature, the others were Ben Jonson's Alchemist and Sophocles's Oedipus Rex. In its 'Preface' Fielding stated: "The excellence of the entertainment consists less in the subject than in the author's skill in well dressing it up...
اعتبرت روايته ( توم جونز) واحدة من اروع ثلاث روايات في تاريخ الروايات والسبب ليس الموضوع وانما مهارة الكاتب في عرض الفكرة
we shall represent human nature at first to keep appetite of our reader, in that more plain and simple manner in which it is found in the country, and shall hereafter hash and ragout it with all the high French and Italian seasoning of affectation and vice which courts and cities afford." Much of the action unfolds against the backdrop of the 1745 Jacobite rebellion.

The introductory chapters that preface each of the novel's 18 books cultivate the reader in a way that was then unprecedented in English fiction. The kindly, prosperous Mr Allworthy finds a baby boy on his bed. He adopts the child, naming it Tom Jones. Allworthy suspects that Jenny Jones, a maid-servant to the wife of the schoolmaster Partridge, is the mother.
فكرة الرواية تتمحور حول طفل يجده السيد في بيته وعلى سريره فيقوم على تبنيه ويطلق عليه اسم توم جونز

اهم سمات حياته :
-يتيم في سن 11
-تزوج والده وارسل بعيد عنه
-مريض في الازمه
-عاش فقيرا

At more than one million words, it's the longest novel in English literature.
مكونه مما يزيد عن مليون كلمة وهي اطول رواية في اللغة الانجليزية

Samuel Richardson

(19 August 1689 - 4 July 1761) was an 18th-century Englishwriter and printer.
Richardson lost his first wife along with their five sons, and eventually remarried. Although with his second wife he had four daughters who lived to become adults, they had no male heir to continue running the printing business. While his print shop slowly ran down, at the age of 51 he wrote his first novel and immediately became one of the most popular and admired writers of his time.
صمويل فقد زوجته الاولى وخمسة من ابناؤه الذكور ثم تزوج مرة اخرى وفقد اثنين من ابناؤه من الزوجة الثانية وحينما كان في سن 51 كان لديه 4 بنات ولك يكن لديه ولد ذكر بدأ بكتابة روايته الاولى
He knew leading figures in 18th century England, including Samuel Johnson and Sarah Fielding. In the London literary world, he was a rival of Henry Fielding, and the two responded to each other's literary styles in their own novels.
Richardson has been one of the authors of the Index Librorum Prohibitorum, a list established by the pope containing the names of books that Catholics were not allowed to read.
Biography
Richardson, one of nine children, was probably born in 1689 in Mackworth, Derbyshire, to Samuel and Elizabeth Richardson. It is unsure where in Derbyshire he was born because Richardson always concealed the locatio.
يعتقد ان صمايل ولد عام 1689 ولكن لا يعرف اين تحديدا فقد اخفى ريتشارسون مكان ولادته
The older Richardson was, according to the younger:
a very honest man, descended of a family of middling note, in the country of Surrey, but which having for several generations a large number of children, the not large possessions were split and divided, so that he and his brothers were put to trades; and the sisters were married to tradesmen.
His mother, according to Richardson, "was also a good woman, of a family not ungenteel; but whose father and mother died in her infancy, within half-an-hour of each other, in the London pestilence of 1665".
The trade his father pursued was that of a joiner (a type of carpenter, but Richardson explains that it was "then more distinct from that of a carpenter than now it is with us").
والده عمل نجار في البيوت
In describing his father's occupation, Richardson stated that "he was a good draughtsman and understood architecture", and it was suggested by Samuel Richardson's son-in-law that the senior Richardson was a cabinetmaker and an exporter of mahogany while working at Aldersgate-street. The abilities and position of his father brought him to the attention of James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth. However this, as Richardson claims, was to Richardson senior's "great detriment" because of the failure of the Monmouth Rebellion, which ended in the death of Scott in 1685. After Scott's death, the elder Richardson was forced to abandon his business in London and live a modest life in Derbyshire. [
اجبر والده على هجرة لندن حيث نفي الى مكان ولادة صمايل بعد فشل تمرد من كان يعمل لديه
1. 1. Early life
The Richardsons were not exiled forever from London; they eventually returned, and the young Richardson was educated at Christ's Hospital grammar school. The extent that he was educated at the school is uncertain, and Leigh Hunt wrote years later:
تعلم في مدرسة ابتدائية لكن لا يعرف طول المدة التي تعلم فيها
It is a fact not generally known that Richardson... received what education he had (which was very little, and did not go beyond English) at Christ's Hospital. It may be wondered how he could come no better taught from a school which had sent forth so many good scholars; but in his time, and indeed till very lately, that foundation was divided into several schools, none of which partook of the lessons of the others; and Richardson, agreeably to his father's intention of bringing him up to trade, was most probably confined to the writing school, where all that was taught was writing and arithmetic. [2]
However, this conflicts with Richardson's nephew's account that "'it is certain that [Richardson] was never sent to a more respectable seminary' than 'a private grammar school" located in Derbyshire". [1] :4
I recollect that I was early noted for having invention. I was not fond of play, as other boys; my school-fellows used to call me Serious and Gravity; and five of them particularly delighted to single me out, either for a walk, or at their father's houses, or at mine, to tell them stories, as they phrased it. Some I told them, from my reading, as true; others from my head, as mere invention; of which they would be most fond, and often were affected by them. One of them particularly, I remember, was for putting me to write a history, as he called it, on the model of Tommy Pots; I now forget what it was, only that it was of a servant-man preferred by a fine young lady (for his goodness) to a lord, who was a libertine. All of my stories carried with them, I am bold to say, a useful moral.

— Samuel Richardson on his storytelling. [1] :4
Little is known of Richardson's early years beyond the few things that Richardson was willing to share.
القليل فقط يعرف عن ريتشاردسون فهو كان دائما متكتم على تفاصيل طفولته
Although he was not forthcoming with specific events and incidents, he did talk about the origins of his writing ability; Richardson would tell stories to his friends and spent his youth constantly writing letters. One such letter, written when Richardson was almost 11, was directed to a woman in her 50s who was in the habit of constantly criticizing others. "Assuming the style and address of a person in years", Richardson cautioned her about her actions. However, his handwriting was used to determine that it was his work, and the woman complained to his mother. The result was, as he explains, that "my mother chid me for the freedom taken by such a boy with a woman of her years" but also "commended my principles, though she censured the liberty taken".
After his writing ability was known, he began to help others in the community write letters. [In particular, Richardson, at the age of thirteen, helped many of the girls that he associated with to write responses to various love letters they received. As Richardson claims, "I have been directed to chide, and even repulse, when an offence was either taken or given, at the very time that the heart of the chider or repulser was open before me, overflowing with esteem and affect". Although this helped his writing ability, he in 1753 advised the Dutch minister Stinstra not to draw large conclusions from these early actions:
You think, Sir, you can account from my early secretaryship to young women in my father's neighbourhood, for the characters I have drawn of the heroines of my three works. But this opportunity did little more for me, at so tender an age, than point, as I may say, or lead my enquiries, as I grew up, into the knowledge of female heart. [1] :7
He continued to explain that he did not fully understand females until writing Clarissa, and these letters were only a beginning. [1] :7
1. 2. Early career
The elder Richardson originally wanted his son to become a clergyman, but he was not able to afford the education that the younger Richardson would require, so he let his son pick his own profession.
كان والده يرغب ان يصبح ابنه راهبا لكنه لم يكن قادر على تعليمه لذلك دفع ابنه ليختار وظيفه
He selected the profession of printing because he hoped to "gratify a thirst for reading, which, in after years, he disclaimed". At the age of seventeen, in 1706, Richardson was bound in seven-year apprenticeship under John Wilde as a printer.
بدأ العمل وهو في سن السابعة عشرة في مطبعة
Wilde's printing shop was in Golden Lion Court on Aldersgate Street, and Wilde had a reputation as "a master who grudged every hour... that tended not to his profit".
I served a diligent seven years to it; to a master who grudged every hour to me that tended not to his profit, even of those times of leisure and diversion, which the refractoriness of my fellow-servants obliged him to allow them, and were usually allowed by other masters to their apprentices. I stole from the hours of rest and relaxation, my reading times for improvement of my mind; and, being engaged in correspondence with a gentleman, greatly my superior in degree, and of ample fortune, who, had he lived, intended high things for me; these were all the opportunities I had in my apprenticeship to carry it on. But this little incident I may mention; I took care that even my candle was of my own purchasing, that I might not, in the most trifling instance, make my master a sufferer (and who use to call me the pillar of his house) and not to disable myself by watching or sitting-up, to perform my duty to him in the day time.

- Samuel Richardson on his time with John Wilde.
While working for Wilde, he met a rich gentleman who took an interest in Richardson's writing abilities and the two began to correspond with each other. When the gentleman died a few years later, Richardson lost a potential patron, which delayed his ability to pursue his own writing career. He decided to devote himself completely to his apprenticeship, and he worked his way up to a position as a compositor and a corrector of the shop's printing press. In 1713, Richardson left Wilde to become "Overseer and Corrector of a Printing-Office". This meant that Richardson ran his own shop, but the location of that shop is unknown. It is possible that the shop was located in Staining Lane or may have been jointly run with John Leake in Jewin Street.
In 1719, Richardson was able to take his freedom from being an apprentice and was soon able to afford to set up his own printing shop, which he did after he moved near the Salisbury Court district close to Fleet Street. [ Although he claimed to business associates that he was working out of the well-known Salisbury Court, his printing shop was more accurately located on the corner of Blue Ball Court and Dorset Street in a house that later became Bell's Building.
On 23 November 1721 Richardson married Martha Wilde, the daughter of his former employer. The match was "prompted mainly by prudential considerations", although Richardson would claim later that there was a strong love-affair between him and Martha. [
تزوج من ابنة مدير عمله في عام 1721 وعمره 32 سنه
He soon brought her to live with him in the printing shop that served also as his home.
A key moment in Richardson's career came on 6 August 1722 when he took on his first apprentices: Thomas Gover, George Mitchell, and Joseph Chrichley. [He would later take on William Price (2 May 1727), Samuel Jolley (5 September 1727), Bethell Wellington (2 September 1729), and Halhed Garland (5 May 1730). [
One of Richardson's first major printing contracts came in June of 1723 when he began to print the bi-weekly The True Briton for Philip Wharton, 1st Duke of Wharton. This was a Jacobite political paper which attacked the government and was soon censored for printing "common libels". However, Richardson's name was not on the publication, and he was able to escape any of the negative fallout, although it is possible that Richardson participated in the papers as far as actually authoring one himself. [The only lasting effect from the paper would be the incorporation of Wharton's libertine characteristics in the character of Lovelace in Richardson's Clarissa, although Wharton would be only one of many models of libertine behaviour that Richardson would find in his life. [1] :13 In 1724, Richardson befriended Thomas Gent, Henry Woodfall, and Arthur Onslow, the latter of those would become the Speaker of the House of Commons. [1] :14
Over their ten years of marriage, the Richardsons had five sons and one daughter, and three of the boys were named Samuel after their father, but all of the boys died after just a few years. Soon after William, their fourth child, died, Martha died on 25 January 1731.
عندما كان عمره 42 سنه مات له جميع ابناؤه الاولاد كما ماتت زوجته مارثا في عام 1731
Their youngest son, Samuel, was to live past his mother for a year longer, but succumbed to illness in 1732. After his final son died, Richardson attempted to move on with his life; he married Elizabeth Leake and the two moved into another house on Blue Ball Court. However, Elizabeth and his daughter were not the only ones living with him since Richardson allowed five of his apprentices to lodge in his home.
Elizabeth had six children (five daughters and one son) with Richardson; four of their daughters, Mary, Martha, Anne, and Sarah, reached adulthood and survived their father. Their son, another Samuel, was born in 1739 and died in 1740. [
زوجته الثانية اليزبث انجبت 6 اطفال ومات الذكوروعددهم 2 وبقي الاناث ايضا
Richardson made the transition from master printer to novelist on 6 November 1740 with the publication of Pamela: or, Virtue Rewarded. [3] :1Pamela was sometimes regarded as "the first English novel". [3] :1 Richardson explained the origins of the work:
بدأ الكتابة عندما كان عمره 51 سنه

- يلاحظ انه مجهول الطفولة
- لا يعرف متى مات الاب او الام
- يعتقد ان الاب مات عندما كان عمره 17 سنه لانه انتقل للعمل في المطبعة
- مات له 4 صبيان ثم زوجته الاولى ثم مات له عدد 2 ولد من زوجته الثانية.
- بدأ الكتابه في سن 51 وبعد ان ذاق مرارة موت ابنؤه الستة وزوجته الاولى.

اهم احداث حياته:
موت اولاده 6 وزوجته وهي شابه.

لم يكتب ستيرن روايته الأولى "حياة تريسترام شاندي وآراؤه" التي تضم تسعة أجزاء، والتي نشرت ما بين العامين 1760 و1767، ولم يكتب روايته الثانية "رحلة مؤثرة عبر فرنسا وإيطاليا" التي نشرت عام 1768، إلّا خلال الأعوام التسعة الأخيرة من حياته.
أمضى لورانس الأعوام العشرة الأولى من طفولته متنقلا بين مدن عدّة، تبعا لعمل والده، ولم تتجاوز مدة إقامته في أي مكان سنة واحدة.
ولم ير والده مطلقا بعد التحاقه بمدرسة قرب هاليفاكس في بريطانيا. ,وعمره 11 سنه.
بعد ذلك، درس علم اللاهوت في كلية كامبردج، وتخرّج عام 1737، وكان من المقرّر أن يصبح واعظا دينيا، وكان تسلّم وظيفته كقِسّ في يوركشاير في عام 1738، ولكن، وبتأثير من عمّه جاكس ستيرن، بدأ العمل كصحافي سياسي، عِلما بأنه تزوج في عام 1741.

عاش ستيرن في ستاتون ما يقارب العشرين سنة، وارتبط بعدد من العلاقات العاطفية، نظرا لفشل زواجه.
وحينما بدأ كتابة الجزء الأول من روايته الشهيرة "تريسترام شاندي"، توفّيت والدته
واشتدّ المرض على زوجته،
فيما كان يعاني، بالإضافة إلى مرضه، تناقضا حادا بين حياته الشخصية وهويته الدينية، مثل بطل رواية هوثورون في روايته "الحرف القرمزي"، حيث يواجه القس صراعه مع ضميره
. ويمكن القول إنه وجد في الكتابة خلاصه من القلق والتوتّر الذي كان يهيمن على حياته.

وعلى عكس أدباء عصره، فقد توجّه في كتابته الى الطبقة الوسطى من الشعب، ما أمّنَ شهرته في بريطانيا وفي كل البلدان الأوروبية. ولقد اعتبره النقّاد بمثابة الشخص الذي عبَر بكتابته الجسر من طبقة الأرستقراطيين إلى قرّاء الطبقة الوسطى. ويذكر الناقد إيان كامبل روس، من جامعة برنستون، في دراسته التي قدّمها حول هذا الكاتب، بأن من
أسباب شهرة روايته، نجاحه في ابتكار تقنيات عدة لتسويقها.
ومن هذه التقنيات التي شدّت القارىء، أن يختار، مثلا، وضع صفحة سوداء بالكامل بعد حديث بطل الرواية عن وفاة إنسان عزيز عليه، وهذا السواد هو تعبير عن حزنه.
وكذلك اختياره لأن تكون الصفحة التي تَلي الحوار بشأن العلاقة بين الرجل والمرأة، إن كانت العاطفة أو الرغبة هي التي تربط بينهما، ويقترح على القارىء أن يدوّن رأيه الخاص في الصفحة الفارغة بكلّ أمانة.

أمّا روايته "تريسترام شاندي"، والتي نشرها ضمن 9 أجزاء، يتضمّن كل جزء ما يقارب الستين صفحة، فقد يصعب وصفها كما ذكر العديد من النقاد. فهي لا تعتمد على أسس الرواية التقليدية، إذ انه من الصعب تحديد حبكة القصة. وهي أقرب إلى أدب السيرة الذاتية، ولكن في ذات الوقت يصعب على القارىء، بعد انتهائه من قراءتها، أن يعرف أي شيء يذكر عن حياة بطلها شاندي، فكل ما يعرفه عنه يتلخّص في يوم ولادته، واليوم الذي عانى فيه حادثا حينما كان في الخامسة من عمره، ورحلته عبر فرنسا.
كما لا تتوافر معلومات كافية، يستطيع القارىء من خلالها أن يحكم إن كانت جيني، والتي ذكرت في مواقع عدة، هي زوجته أم لا. ومن خلال عنوان الكتاب، يتجلّى مضمون القصة المتمثل في عرض آراء وأفكار والد شاندي، وليس أفكاره.

كما أن الأجزاء الثلاثة الأولى كُتبت قبل ولادة شاندي، وفيها يتناول شخصيّة والده وعمّه، كما يتحدث عن شقيقه. والرواية عبارة عن سرد لذكريات نَبيل من القرن الثامن عشر، وتتضمن الكثير من المواقف الكوميدية والطريفة، وإن كانت تتطلب الكثير من التركيز والانتباه.
وتتجلى أهميّة هذا العمل عبر تطوير لورانس لبنية الرواية من خلال أسلوب السرد، والذي تبنّاه العديد من الكتّاب، في إطار أدب الحداثة وما بعد الحداثة، فالموضوع لا يرتبط بشخص البطل، بل بالموضوعات التي يحلو للكاتب تناولها، والتي تكون متفرّعة عن المحور، إلى جانب حوارات متخيّلة مع قرّاء ونقاد.
وهو يهدف من خلال بنية الرواية إدخال القارىء إلى عقل شاندي، وهو الأسلوب الأدبي الذي تبنّاه كتّاب القرن العشرين، حيث يتدفّق النص من خلال الوعي الداخلي للشخصيّات. ويتخلل العمل الكثير من الحوارات مع القرّاء والتعليق على الأحداث، ومثالنا على ذلك، قوله : "لقد وعدت بكتابة الفصل الخاص بالأزرار، ولكن عليّ قبلها أن أقدّم لكم الفصل الخاص بخادمات الغرَف".
إستخدم جايمس جويس، في رواية يوليوس، أسلوبا مشابها لأسلوبه في الأدب الانكليزي. فكلاهما اعتمد على العلاقة المتشابكة بين الكاتب والقارىء، وكلاهما تميّز بروح السخرية، وإن كان البطل شاندي يفتقد إلى الجديّة وطبيعة التشاؤم في شخصية بطل رواية جويس المدعو ليوبولد بلوم. كما أن الأول نتاج القرن الثامن عشر، والثاني نتاج القرن العشرين.

وتجلّت الصدمة التي شكلّتها الرواية في المجتمع الفيكتوري، من خلال المواقف الصريحة الفجّة التي عرضها المؤلف، والتي تحتمل على الدوام تأويلات عدّة، مع طرحه للعديد من التساؤلات حول الواقع السياسي والاجتماعي ومفهوم الحياة والثقة والأمانة، وذلك من خلال تساؤل الرواية في شخص بطلها، هل الرجل يتبع القواعد ؟ أم أن الآخرين يتبعونه ؟
تلك التساؤلات قدّمها ستيرن من خلال حياة عائلة البطل، التي تروي قصّته بصورة ما. فهو ابن جندي توفي في معركة في جامايكا، وتمحورت طفولة شاندي في حياة أفراد الأسرة، ورؤيتهم للحرب من خلال منظور قادتها أو جنودها، وذلك عبر القصص التي كان يسردها عمّه توبي، وهو من جيل المحاربين القدماء الذين سُرّحوا من الخدمة بعد انتهاء حرب السنوات السبع.
أما شقيق عمّه توبي ووالد شاندي، فهو القس وولتر شاندي الواقعي بأفكاره، الذي يحاول السيطرة على كل احتمالات المغامرة في حياة ابنه.
وقد عمد ستيرن، من خلال شخصية شاندي، إلى إيقاع النقاد في حيرة من أمرهم. فعمله إمّا يتجاوز قدراتهم، أو أنه أدنى من إثارة اهتمامهم. وعلى عكس بريطانيا، فقد استقبل النقاد في ألمانيا روايته بترحيب وإعجاب، وعلى رأسهم غوته وروّاد الحركة الرومانسية، كما تأثر بعمله كارل ماركس الذي حاول محاكاة ذلك في رواية.
ولم يحظ ستيرن بتقديره ككاتب في بريطانيا إلّا في بداية القرن العشرين، حيث وصفته فيرجينيا وولف بقولها : "إنه أقرب ما يمكن من الحياة"، أمّا جيمس جويس فقال عنه "إنه رجل الريف".

( 1713 – 1768م). رجل دين بريطاني اشتهر فجأة بتأليفة كتاب حياة وآراء تريسترام شاندي، النبيل (1760 – 1767م)، وهي رواية غير عادية تعتمد على الأحاديث والذكريات أكثر من اعتمادها على الأحداث. ويلاحظ أن القصة تَمَّت وعمر تريسترام لم يتجاوز الخامسة. وكان ذلك ـ إلى حد ما ـ هو السبب في عدم اكتمال العمل. إلا أن السبب الرئيسي هو اهتمام ستيرن بشخصيات أخرى في عائلة تريسترام وأصدقائهم وخدمهم. والرواية مثيرة وفكهة إلى حد بعيد وتعكس شهرتها الاهتمام المتناهي بالمرح والضحك وبالمشاعر والعاطفة خلال تلك الفترة. يمثل توبي، عم تريسترام، الجندي البسيط صاحب القلب الطيب، مثالاً لسلسلة طويلة من الشخصيات المضحكة التي كانت محبوبة في أدب القرن الثامن عشر الميلادي رغم غرابة أطوارها.
يلاحظ أن الرواية لاتلتزم بالتسلسل الزمني بالنسبة للحوار والأحداث التي دارت فيها. فقد تأثر ستيرن بالفيلسوف جون لوك الذي كان يعتقد أن العقل عند الميلاد يكون لوحًا فارغًا تتشكل فيه الأفكار بربط التجارب المكتسبة بوساطة الحواس. ولاحظ أننا في بعض الأحيان نربط بين أفكار لاعلاقة منطقية بينها. وتشكل هذه السلاسل من الأفكار الخاطئة أساس تطور رواية تريسترام شاندي. وبالرغم من أن القراء قد يصيبهم الارتباك في البداية نتيجة للطريقة التي يقفز بها ستيرن من فكرة إلى أخرى، إلا أنّ الكتاب في النهاية يبدو أقرب إلى تجربتنا في الحياة من الروايات التي تميل نحو المحاكاة. لقد مهدت طريقة ستيرن في رواية تريسترام شاندي الطريق لروايات جيمس جويس وفرجينيا وولف المهتمة بالإدراك والشعور.
ولد ستيرن في كلونميل، بأيرلندا، وقام برحلات إلى فرنسا من أجل المحافظة على صحته بعد إصابته بالسل الرئوي. أوحت له تلك الرحلات بكتابه رحلة عاطفية خلال فرنسا وإيطاليا (1768م)، وهو كتاب طريف يحكي عن شؤون ستيرن العاطفية وأفكاره الوقتية أكثر مما يحكي عن المناطق التي زارها.

يتمه: سكن عند عمه من عمر 11 للدراسة بينما غادر والده فيمهمه الى جاميكا وتوفي هناك عام 1831 دون ان يراه لورنس مرةاخرى.
مجاله: روائي بريطاني.
لورنس ستيرن.. صنف من أهم الروائيين في القرن الثامنعشر
ستيرن (لورنس ـ)

لورنس ستيرنLaurence Sterneروائي إنكليزي إيرلندي المولد كتب رواية «تريسترامشاندي» Tristram Shandyفي تسعةمجلدات، وتعد من أشهر الأعمال الروائية في القرن الثامن عشر، جعلت كاتبها يحتلمكانة مرموقة في تاريخ الأدب الإنكليزي عامة. ولد في كلونميلClonmel، وتوفي في لندن. كان والده ملازماً في الجيش يتنقل منمكان إلى آخر. وبعد انتهاء دراسته الثانوية انتسب إلى جامعة كمبردجCambridgeوذلك بمساعدة ابن عمه ريتشارد ستيرن،لكنه لم يكن متميزاً في دراسته، ومع هذا حصل على درجة الإجازة الجامعية عام 1737وعلى الماجستير عام 1740.
عُين ستيرن عام 1737 شماساً ثم قسيساًبمساعدة عمه جاك ستيرن الذي كان رجل دين بارزاً في أبرشية مدينة يورك، وتزوج بعدثلاث سنوات من إليزابيث لمليElizabeth Lumley، ورزق منها بابنته ليدياLydia، التي قامت بتحرير رسائل والدها.
- كانت حياة ستيرنالعائلية مملوءة بالعواصف بسبب مزاج الزوجين، يضاف إلى ذلك تقلب الزوجة ومغامراتالزوج العاطفية، مما أدى إلى عدم الاتفاق،
- ومما زاد في مشكلات ستيرن أنه ابتليبمطالب أخته وأمه الأرملة
- ثم تدهورت صحته بسبب النزيف الذي عاناه منذ أيام الدراسةواستمر يضعف رئتيه.
كانت المدة بين زواجه وشهرته الأدبية عام 1760 سنوات عمل مكثف،إذ عمل في الزراعة من دون نجاح يذكر، وقرأ كثيراً وخاصة في أثناء زياراته لصديقهجون هول ستيفنسونJohn Hall Stevensonالذيكان يملك مكتبة تضم مؤلفات نادرة. وتابع هواياته في الموسيقى والرسم، وقد ظهر ذلكفيما بعد في «تريسترام شاندي» الذي ضمنه رسومات عدة.
نشر ستيرن في أوائل عام 1759 كراسة صغيرة اسماها «قصة غرام سياسية» A Political Romanceوهي قصة رمزية ساخرة مبنية على شجار كنسي سخيف في يورك،فمنعت بسرعة، إلا أنه اكتشف منها موهبته الأدبية. وبدأ بعد ذلك بالمجلدين الأولينمن «حياة وآراء السيد تريسترام شاندي» The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandyبهدف إنتاج عمل فيه فكاهة وسخرية. وقدتطور أسلوبه عبر المجلدات اللاحقة التي نشرت بين عامي 1759ـ1767، فأصبحت السخريةأقل وضوحاً، كما اقترب من الذوق الشعبي وأدخل مسحة من العاطفة، وما انفك يضيفويعدّل فيها حتى نَشْرِ آخر جزء منها.
على الرغم من النقد الشديد الذي تعرضتإليه رواية «تريسترام شاندي» من قبل معاصري ستيرن لأسباب جمالية وأخلاقية، فقد صارتمرجعاً مهماً للأفكار والشخصيات والتقنيات الروائية نهل منه كثير من الكتّاب،وبداية لأسلوب تيار الوعي الذي ظهر في فن الرواية في بدايات القرن العشرين معروايات جيمس جويس. و»تريسترام شاندي» ليست رواية بالمفهوم التقليدي، أي إنها لاتستخدم التقنيات الشائعة، وإنما هي نص طويل في تسعة مجلدات يروي فيه تريسترام (الراوي والشخصية الرئيسة) سيرة حياة أفراد عائلته ومجتمعه بالتفصيل الدقيق في مزيجمن الأحداث والتأملات والوصف والسرد المسهب يتخلله الكثير من الشطط والابتعاد عنالموضوعات الرئيسة. فالفكرة الأساسية أو «الثيمة» التي تميز أي رواية ليست على قدرمن الأهمية في «تريسترام شاندي»، بل الأهم هي الطريقة التي تروى بها الأحداثوتُعرَض الشخصيات التي لا تتبع نسقاً أفقياً للزمن، ويستخدم ستيرن من خلالهاالإمكانات اللامحدودة للفضاء الروائي الحر الذي تتيحه الكتابة من دون قيود الحبكةوتقنية السبب والنتيجة وإيجاد الخاتمة، بل بعبثية الزمن وفوضى الحدث.
ويستخدم فيالرواية تقنيات تسبب تقطعاً مقصوداً في النص، مثل استخدام علامات الترقيم بكثرة،وترك الصفحات البيضاء، والرسومات والأشكال المقحمة ليؤكد عدم واقعية الرواية. ويتعرّف القارئ من الراوي تريسترام جميعَ الشخصيات التي تمثل جوانب متعددة منالحياة في تناقضاتها وأفكارها وتصرفاتها وكلامها.
كان المجلدان الأولان من «تريسترام شاندي» سبب إطلاق شهرة ستيرن، وعندما زار لندن عام 1760 وقوبل بكثير منالتكريم والترحيب من قبل الأوساط الأدبية، اغتنم الفرصة فنشر في أيار عام 1760مجلدين من «مواعظ السيد يوريك» Sermons of Mr. Yorick، كان قد كتبهما سابقاً. ثم نشرت مجموعات أخرى منها فيالعامين 1766 و1769. وقد حاول في هذه المرحلة أن يستعيد صحته المتدهورة، فسافرمتجولاً في فرنسا بين عامي 1762و1764. وعندما قررت زوجته وابنته الاستقرار هناك كانعليه أن يعود إلى إنكلترا وحده. وفي عام 1765 ذهب إلى إيطاليا وخرج من أسفارهبالمجلد السابع من «تريسترام شاندي» الذي كان الأساس لعمله الأخير «رحلة عاطفية فيفرنسا وإيطاليا» (1768) A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italyوهي وصف للرحلة التي قام بها في أوربا، وأنهى مجلدينآخرين من هذا العمل قبل وفاته. قابل ستيرن في عام 1767 السيدة اليزابيث دريبرElizabeth Draperالتي كانتفي زيارة للندن، فأحبها وكانت ملهمته في «رسائل إلى إليزا» (1767) Journal to Eliza، ولكنها لم تُنشر إلا بعد 140عاماً.
يعد ستيرن رائد الأدب النفسي الحديث، وينظر إلى أسلوبهالروائي بوصفه البوادر الأولى للثورة على التطرف في العقلانية الذي ساد القرنالثامن العشر، وأسس البوادر الأولى للبطل الضد (اللا بطل)، ولا يزال يشكل مدرسةمستقلة في فن الرواية.
بقلم : نبيلة شمس الدين

عاش ستيرن ما يقارب من عشرين عاما في ستاتون، ونظرا لفشلزواجه فقد ارتبط بعدد من العلاقات العاطفية. وحينما بدأ بكتابة الجزء الأول منروايته الشهيرة «تريسترام شاندي» توفيت والدته واشتد المرض على زوجته، فيما كانيعاني هو بالإضافة إلى مرضه من التناقض الحاد بين حياته الشخصية وهويته الدينية،مثل بطل رواية هوثرون في روايته «الحرف القرمزي» حيث يواجه القس صراعه مع ضميره. ويمكن القول أنه وجد في الكتابة خلاصه من القلق والتوتر الذي كان يهيمن علىحياته. وفي عام 1762 غادر إلى فرنسا للعلاج، وهناك استقبله الشعبالفرنسي باحتفاء كبير للشهرة الواسعة التي حققتها الأجزاء الأولى من روايته. وفيفرنسا بدأ بكتابة روايته الثانية «رحلة مؤثرة عبر فرنسا وإيطاليا»، التي نشرت فيبداية عام 1768. وقبل مضي عام على نشرها تدهورت حالته الصحية وتوفي في 18 مارس وكانفي الرابعة والخمسين.
ومن أسباب شهرته في بريطانيا وفي كل البلدانالأوروبية هو توجهه في الكتابة للطبقة الوسطى من الشعب على عكس أدباء عصره، ويعتبرالنقاد ستيرن بمثابة الشخص الذي عبر بكتابته الجسر من طبقة الارستقراطيين إلى قراءالطبقة الوسطى. ويذكر الناقد إيان كامبل روس من جامعة برنستون في دراسته التي قدمهاحول هذا الكاتب، بأن من أسباب شهرة روايته هو نجاحه في ابتكار تقنيات عدة لتسويقها.
ومن هذه التقنيات التي شدت القاريء أن يختار مثلا وضع صفحةسوداء بالكامل بعد حديث بطل الرواية عن وفاة إنسان عزيز عليه، وهذا السواد هو تعبيرعن حزنه. وكذلك اختياره لأن تكون الصفحة التي تلي الحوار بشأن العلاقة بين الرجلوالمرأة، إن كانت العاطفة أم الرغبة هي التي تربط بينهما، ويقترح على القاريء أنيدون رأيه الخاص في الصفحة الفارغة بكل أمانة.

اهم احداث حياته:
- يتيم الاب في سن 11

Les Liaisons dangereuses (French pronunciation: [le ljɛ.zɔ̃ dɑ̃.ʒə.ʁøz]; The Dangerous Liaisons) is a Frenchepistolary novel by Choderlos de Laclos, first published in four volumes by Durand Neveu from March 23, 1782.
It is the story of the Marquise de Merteuil and the Vicomte de Valmont, two rivals (and ex-lovers) who use sex as a weapon to humiliate and degrade others, all the while enjoying their cruel games. It has been claimed to depict the decadence of the French aristocracy shortly before the French Revolution, thereby exposing the perversions of the so-called Ancien Régime. However, it has also been described as a vague, amoral story.
The book is an epistolary novel, composed entirely of letters written by the various characters to each other. In particular, the letters between Valmont and the Marquise drive the plot, with those of other characters serving as illustrations to give the story its depth.
It is often claimed to be the source of the saying "Revenge is a dish best served cold", a paraphrased translation of "La vengeance est un plat qui se mange froid" (more literally, "Revenge is a dish that is eaten cold"). However the expression does not actually occur in the original novel.

The Vicomte de Valmont is determined to seduce the virtuous (and married) Madame de Tourvel, who is living with Valmont's aunt while Monsieur de Tourvel, a magistrate, is away on a court case. At the same time, the Marquise de Merteuil is determined to corrupt the young Cécile de Volanges, whose mother has only recently brought her out of a convent to be married – to Merteuil's recent lover, who has become bored with her and discarded her. Cécile falls in love with the Chevalier Danceny (her music tutor) and Merteuil and Valmont pretend to want to help the secret lovers in order to gain their trust, so that they can use them later in their own schemes.
Merteuil suggests that the Vicomte seduce Cécile in order to exact her revenge on Cécile's future husband. Valmont refuses, finding the task too easy, and preferring to devote himself to seducing Madame de Tourvel. Merteuil promises Valmont that if he seduces Madame de Tourvel and provides her with written proof, she will spend the night with him. He expects rapid success, but does not find it as easy as his many other conquests. During the course of his pursuit, he discovers that Cécile's mother has written to Madame de Tourvel about his bad reputation. He avenges himself in seducing Cécile as Merteuil had suggested. In the meantime, Merteuil takes Danceny as a lover.
By the time Valmont has succeeded in seducing Madame de Tourvel, it is suggested that he might have fallen in love with her. Jealous, Merteuil tricks him into deserting Madame de Tourvel – and reneges on her promise of spending the night with him. In response Valmont reveals that he prompted Danceny to reunite with Cécile, leaving Merteuil abandoned yet again. Merteuil declares war on Valmont, and in revenge she reveals to Danceny that Valmont has seduced Cécile. Danceny and Valmont duel, and Valmont is fatally wounded. Before he dies he is reconciled with Danceny, giving him the letters proving Merteuil's own involvement. These letters are sufficient to ruin her reputation, and she flees to the countryside, where she contracts smallpox. Her face is left permanently scarred and she is rendered blind in one eye, so she loses her greatest asset: her beauty. But the innocent also suffer from the protagonist's schemes: hearing of Valmont's death, Madame de Tourvel succumbs to a fever and dies, while Cécile returns to the convent.

Les Liaisons dangereuses is celebrated for its exploration of seduction, revenge, and human malice, presented in the form of fictional letters collected and published by a fictional author. The book was viewed as scandalous at the time of its initial publication, though the real intentions of the author remain unknown. It has been suggested that Laclos's intention was the same as that of his fictional author in the novel; to write a morality tale about the corrupt, squalid nobility of the Ancien Régime. However, this theory has been questioned on several grounds. In the first place, Laclos enjoyed the patronage of France's most senior aristocrat – the duc d'Orléans. Secondly, all the characters in the story are aristocrats, including the virtuous heroines – Madame de Tourvel and Madame de Rosemonde. Finally, many ultra-royalist and conservative figures enjoyed the book, including Queen Marie-Antoinette, which suggests that – despite its scandalous reputation – it was not viewed as a political work until the events of the French Revolution years later made it appear as such, with the benefit of hindsight.
Wayland Young notes that most critics have viewed the work as
... a sort of celebration, or at least a neutral statement, of libertinism... pernicious and damnable... Almost everyone who has written about it has noted how perfunctory are the wages of sin..."[1]
He argues, however, that
... the mere analysis of libertinism… carried out by a novelist with such a prodigious command of his medium... was enough to condemn it and play a large part in its destruction.[1]

· Les Liaisons dangereuses (1959), directed by Roger Vadim and starring Jeanne Moreau, Gérard Philipe, and Annette Vadim. In this version, Vadim updates the story to a late-1950s French bourgeois milieu.
· Uiheomhan gwangye – literally "Dangerous Liaison" in Korean – (1970), a Korean adaptation directed by Young Nam Ko and starring Mu-ryong Choi, Hie Mun, and Ji-myeong Oh.[2]
· Dangerous Liaisons (1988), directed by Stephen Frears and starring Glenn Close, John Malkovich, and Michelle Pfeiffer (based on Hampton's play). This version uses 18th century costumes and dazzling shots of the Île-de-France region around Paris. It was nominated for multiple Academy Awards including Best Picture.
· Valmont (1989), directed by Miloš Forman and starring Annette Bening, Colin Firth, and Meg Tilly.
· Cruel Intentions (1999), directed by Roger Kumble and starring Sarah Michelle Gellar, Ryan Phillippe, and Reese Witherspoon relocates the story to modern-day New York and is set amongst upper-class High School teens.
· Untold Scandal (2003), directed by Lee Je Yong and starring Lee Mik Suk, Jeon Do Yeon, and Bae Yong Joon (transposes setting to 18th century Korea).
· Michael Lucas' Dangerous Liaisons (2005), an X-ratedgaypornographic film variously described as a film adaptation and a remake. Directed by Michael Lucas with non-sexual cameo appearances by Boy George, Lady Bunny, Amanda Lepore, Hedda Lettuce, Michael Musto, Graham Norton, RuPaul, and Bruce Vilanch.

· Les Liaisons dangereuses (1980), a French television film directed by Claude Barma, starring Claude Degliame, Jean-Pierre Bouvier and Maïa Simon).[3]
· Les Liaisons dangereuses (TV miniseries) (2003), a French television miniseries directed by Josée Dayan and starring Catherine Deneuve, Rupert Everett, Leelee Sobieski and Nastassja Kinski, which relocates the story to the 1960s.

(French pronunciation: 18 October 1741 – 5 September 1803) was a French novelist, official and army general, best known for writing the epistolary novelLes Liaisons dangereuses (Dangerous Liaisons).
A unique case in French literature, he was for a long time considered to be as scandalous a writer as the Marquis de Sade or Nicolas-Edme Rétif. He was a military officer with no illusions about human relations, and an amateur writer; however, his initial plan was to "write a work which departed from the ordinary, which made a noise, and which would remain on earth after his death"; from this point of view he mostly attained his goals, with the fame of his masterwork Les Liaisons dangereuses. It is one of the masterpieces of novelistic literature of the 18th century, which explores the amorous intrigues of the aristocracy. It has inspired a large number of critical and analytic commentaries, plays, and films.

Laclos was born in Amiens into a bourgeois family, and in 1760 was sent to the École royale d'artillerie de La Fère, ancestor of the École polytechnique.
انضم للجيس وعمره 19 سنه وارسل الى الجبهة
As a young lieutenant, he briefly served in a garrison at La Rochelle until the end of the Seven Years War (1763).
خدم في الجيس حتى نهاية حرب السبعة سنوات والتي انتهت في نهاية 1763

Later he was assigned to Strasbourg (1765–1769), Grenoble (1769–1775) and Besançon (1775–1776).
Despite being promoted to captain (1771), Laclos grew increasingly bored with his artillery garrison duties and the company of the soldiers, and began to devote his free time to writing.
في وقت لاحق بدأ يضجر من حياة العسكرية وصحبة العساكر وكرس وقته للكتابة

His first works, several light poems, were published on the Almanach des Muses. Later he wrote an Opéra-comique, Ernestine, inspired by a novel by Marie-Jeanne Riccoboni. Its premiere on 19 July 1777, in presence of Queen Marie-Antoinette, was a failure. In the same year he created a new artillery school in Valence, which was to include Napoleon among its students. At his return at Besançon in 1778, Laclos was promoted second captain of the Engineers. In this period he wrote several works, which showed his great admiration of Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
In 1779 he was sent to Île-d'Aix to assist Marc-René de Montalembert in the construction of fortifications there against the British. He however spent most of his time writing his new epistolary novel, Les Liaisons Dangereuses, as well as a Letter to Madame de Montalembert. When he asked for and was granted six months of vacation, he spent the time in Paris writing.
Les Liaisons Dangereuses was published by Durand Neveu in four volumes on 23 March 1782, turning into a widespread success (1,000 copies sold in a month, an exceptional result for the times). Laclos was immediately ordered to return to his garrison in Brittany; in 1783 he was sent to La Rochelle to collaborate in the construction of the new arsenal. Here he met Marie-Soulange Duperré, 18 years his junior, whom he would marry in 1786. The following year he began a project of numbering Paris' streets.
In 1788 Laclos left the army, entering the service of Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, for whom, after the outbreak of the French Revolution, he carried forward with intense diplomatic activity. Captured by the Republic ideals, he left the Duke to obtain a place as commissar in the Ministry of War. His reorganization has been credited as having a role in the Revolutionary Army victory in the Battle of Valmy. Later, after the desertion of general Charles François Dumouriez, he was however arrested as "Orleaniste", being freed after the Thermidorian Reaction.
He thenceforth spent some time in ballistic studies, which led him to the invention of the modern artillery shell.
اخترع كبسولة المدفيعة المصنوعة من البلاستيك والتي ما تزال تستخدم
In 1795 he requested of the Committee of Public Safety reintegration in the army, which was ignored. His attempts to obtain a diplomatic position and to found a bank were also unsuccessful.
حاول الحصول على وظيفة في السلك الدبلماسي لكنه فشل ثم حاول تأسيس بنك وفشل

Eventually, Laclos met the young general and recent First Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte, and joined his party. On 16 January 1800 he was reinstated in the Army as Brigadier General in the Armée du Rhin, taking part in the Battle of Biberach.
Made commander-in-chief of Reserve Artillery in Italy (1803), Laclos died shortly afterward in the former convent of St. Francis of Assisi at Taranto, probably of dysentery and malaria. He was buried in the fort still bearing his name (Forte de Laclos) in the Isola di San Paolo near the city, built under his direction. Following the restoration of the House of Bourbon in southern Italy, his burial tomb was destroyed; it is believed that his bones were tossed into the sea.

Bibliography

· Ernestine (1777, Opéra-comique)[1]
· Les Liaisons dangereuses (1782)
· Des Femmes et de leur éducation (1783)
· Instructions aux assemblées de bailliage (1789)
· Journal des amis de la Constitution (1790–1791)
· De la guerre et de la paix (1795)

http://www.austen.com/emma/images/title2.gif

Jane Austen began to write Emma in January of 1814 and finished it a little over a year later, in March of 1815. At the time of completion, Austen was thirty-nine years old. Emma was published at the end of 1815, with 2,000 copies being printed—563, more than a quarter, were still unsold after four years. She earned less than forty pounds from the book during her lifetime, though it earned more after her death. Austen died a year and a half after publication. [Source:

Emma was Austen's fourth published novel, and the last to appear before her death. Both Persuasion and Northanger Abbey would be published posthumously. Though she published anonymously, her previous works were noticed by critics and literature lovers. One of her admirers was H.R.H. The Prince Regent. Through the prince's librarian, Austen was invited to dedicate one of her works to the prince, she complied to the royal command in the dedication of Emma—though her reluctance to do so is apparent in the wording of the dedication.

Emma is the story of Miss Emma Woodhouse, a well-to-do young woman in a small English town. After her governess, Miss Taylor, marries and becomes Mrs. Weston, Emma is left with her hypochondriac, hyper-concerned father as her sole companion. She therefore takes the poor, unconnected, yet gentle Harriet under her wing. Emma's love of matchmaking leads her to meddle in Harriet's love life, and to set up some romantic misadventures of her own! A humorous, satirical work, where the plot is often secondary to the characters themselves. From the garrulous Miss Bates, to the querulous Mr Woodhouse, to the gallant Mr. Knightley and erratic Mr. Churchill, a fascinating and highly readable example of Jane Austen's prowess with the English language.--Submitted by Caitlin

Emma Woodhouse, the heroine of our novel, is bored. Who wouldn’t be? A constantly dozing father who is always cold and worried when he is awake, a sister who is in London and a gratifying governess who has just married Mr Weston, a house friend, and no other useful past-times. What else is to remain but chatting to Mr Knightly, also a house friend and bachelor proprietor of neighbouring Donwell Abbey, and looking for another fun amusement? Surely, it was she who made the match between Miss Tailor, her governess, and Mr Weston! Indeed, she foresaw the match already long before anyone did… Thus, a new useful employment has presented itself in front of her: matchmaking. She will now take on the charge of Miss Harriet Smith, a girl who is the illegitimate daughter of some gentleman or other and who lives in the school nearby, but who she fancies must be a baronet’s daughter, surely. Mr Knightley’s advice therefore of leaving her alone, is of no consequence. Harriet Smith must and shall be guided, away from Mr Martin, a gentleman farmer, onto honourable Mr Elton, the new curate. But are his attentions meant for Harriet at all? Are his interests with a beautiful face or rather something else beautiful, a purse perhaps? When he proves a disappointment, an old acquaintance turns up in the name of Jane Fairfax (surely disliked because of her reserve alone) and Mr Weston’s son Frank Churchill appears, the carrier of a great fortune to be inherited from his maternal side in Yorkshire, everyone matches Emma with him, including soon she herself in thought, though she dismisses him and matches him with several people, apart from the right one. Surely the sub-plot around Frank Churchill was crystal-clear to Regency readers… All will come to a head at Box Hill where Emma cruelly offends Miss Bates, an old spinster of her acquaintance and aunt of Jane, something which earns her a severe reproof of Mr Knightley. But by what was that reproof motivated? As he moves off to his brother in London and she stays behind, all will be revealed, but is it not too late? Is he not attached? Has she matched everyone well or would some humble pie be in its place

Jane Austen

(16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817) was an English novelist whose works of romantic fiction, set among the landed gentry, earned her a place as one of the most widely read writers in
اصبحت راواياتها من اكثر الروايات قراءة في الادب الاتجليزي

English literature, her realism and biting social commentary cementing her historical importance among scholars and critics

Austen lived her entire life as part of a close-knit family located on the lower fringes of the English landed gentry.
عاشت في عائلة مغلقة لا يكاد يعرف عنها شيئا

She was educated primarily by her father and older brothers as well as through her own reading.
تعلمت بشكل اساسي من قبل والدها واخوها الكبير ومن القراءة الذاتية ( هذا يلقي بعض الشك حول وجود الام في حياتها)
The steadfast support of her family was critical to her development as a professional writer.Her artistic apprenticeship lasted from her teenage years until she was about 35 years old. During this period, she experimented with various literary forms, including the epistolary novel which she tried then abandoned, and wrote and extensively revised three major novels and began a fourth. From 1811 until 1816, with the release of Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814) and Emma (1816), she achieved success as a published writer. She wrote two additional novels, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion, both published posthumously in 1818, and began a third, which was eventually titled Sanditon, but died before completing it.
Austen's works critique the novels of sensibility of the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century realism. Her plots, though fundamentally comic, highlight the dependence of women on marriage to secure social standing and economic security. Her work brought her little personal fame and only a few positive reviews during her lifetime, but the publication in 1869 of her nephew's A Memoir of Jane Austen introduced her to a wider public, and by the 1940s she had become widely accepted in academia as a great English writer. The second half of the 20th century saw a proliferation of Austen scholarship and the emergence of a Janeite fan culture.

Biographical information concerning Jane Austen is "famously scarce", according to one biographer.
مجهولة الطفولة بشكل عام
Only some personal and family letters remain (by one estimate only 160 out of Austen's 3,000 letters are extant), and her sister Cassandra (to whom most of the letters were originally addressed) burned "the greater part" of the ones she kept and censored those she did not destroy. Other letters were destroyed by the heirs of Admiral Francis Austen, Jane's brother.Most of the biographical material produced for fifty years after Austen's death was written by her relatives and reflects the family's biases in favour of "good quiet Aunt Jane". Scholars have unearthed little information since.
معظم المعلومات عن طفولتها استقيت من رسائل كانت قد كتبتها لاختها لكن الكثير من تلك الرسائل اتلفت ولم يتبق منها الكثير
كما ان الكثير من المعلومات عنها دونت بعد 50 عام من موتها ويعتقد ان اقاربها قد كتبوا الكثير من المعلومات المتحيزة لصالحها
Austen's parents, George Austen (1731–1805), and his wife Cassandra (1739–1827), were members of substantial gentry families.George was descended from a family of woollen manufacturers, which had risen through the professions to the lower ranks of the landed gentry. Cassandra was a member of the prominent Leigh family; they married on 26 April 1764 at Walcot Church in Bath.From 1765 until 1801, that is, for much of Jane's life, George Austen served as the rector of the Anglican parishes at Steventon, Hampshire and a nearby village. From 1773 until 1796, he supplemented this income by farming and by teaching three or four boys at a time who boarded at his home. Austen's immediate family was large: six brothers—James (1765–1819), George (1766–1838), Edward (1767–1852), Henry Thomas (1771–1850), Francis William (Frank) (1774–1865), Charles John (1779–1852)—and one sister, Cassandra Elizabeth (Steventon, Hampshire, 9 January 1773–1845), who, like Jane, died unmarried.
Cassandra Elizabeth was Austen's closest friend and confidante throughout her life. Of her brothers, Austen felt closest to Henry, who became a banker and, after his bank failed, an Anglican clergyman. Henry was also his sister's literary agent. His large circle of friends and acquaintances in London included bankers, merchants, publishers, painters, and actors: he provided Austen with a view of social worlds not normally visible from a small parish in rural Hampshire.

George was sent to live with a local family at a young age because, as Austen biographer Le Faye describes it, he was "mentally abnormal and subject to fits".He may also have been deaf and mute.
ارسل اخوها الكبير جورج للعيش مع عائلة محلية منذ كان صغيرا حيث كان يعاني من خلل ذهني ويعتقد انه كان اصم واخرس

Charles and Frank served in the navy, both rising to the rank of admiral. Edward was adopted by his fourth cousin, Thomas Knight, inheriting Knight's estate and taking his name in 1812.[
تم تبني الاخ ادوارد من عائلة اخرى قريبه وقد ورث عن العائلة التي تبنته في العام 1812

Austen was born on 16 December 1775 at Steventon rectory and publicly christened on 5 April 1776. After a few months at home, her mother placed Austen with Elizabeth Littlewood, a woman living nearby, who nursed and raised Austen for a year or eighteen months.
ولدت اوستن في عام 1775 وبعد بضعة اشهر في البيت تم ارسالها الى بيت برضعه اسمها اليزبث لتلود وهي امرأة تسكن في مكان قريب وبقيت عندها لمدة عام او ثامنية اشهر

In 1783, according to family tradition, Jane and Cassandra were sent to Oxford to be educated by Mrs. Ann Cawley and they moved with her to Southampton later in the year.
في العام 1783 ارسلت جين واختها الى اكسفورد ليتم تعليمها من قبل ان كاولي وقد انتقلا للعيش معها في ساوثامبتون

Both girls caught typhus and Jane nearly died. Austen was subsequently educated at home, until leaving for boarding school with her sister Cassandra early in 1785.
اصيبت الفتاتان بالتيفوئيد وعليه عادت جين الى المنزل لتتعلم في البيت وبقيت في المنزل الى ان تم ارسالها الى مدرسة داخليه عام 1785 وعمرها 10 سنوات

The school curriculum probably included some French, spelling, needlework, dancing and music and, perhaps, drama. By December 1786, Jane and Cassandra had returned home because the Austens could not afford to send both of their daughters to school.
في العام 1786 عادت جين الى المنزل لان العائلة لم تكن قادرة على تسديد نفقات دراسة الاختين

Austen acquired the remainder of her education by reading books, guided by her father and her brothers James and Henry.[George Austen apparently gave his daughters unfettered access to his large and varied library, was tolerant of Austen's sometimes risqué experiments in writing, and provided both sisters with expensive paper and other materials for their writing and drawing.

According to Park Honan, a biographer of Austen, life in the Austen home was lived in "an open, amused, easy intellectual atmosphere" where the ideas of those with whom the Austens might disagree politically or socially were considered and discussed. After returning from school in 1786, Austen "never again lived anywhere beyond the bounds of her immediate family environment".

Private theatricals were also a part of Austen's education. From when she was seven until she was thirteen, the family and close friends staged a series of plays, including Richard Sheridan's The Rivals (1775) and David Garrick's Bon Ton. While the details are unknown, Austen would certainly have joined in these activities, as a spectator at first and as a participant when she was older.[most of the plays were comedies, which suggests one way in which Austen's comedic and satirical gifts were cultivated.[Perhaps as early as 1787, Austen began to write poems, stories, and plays for her own and her family's amusement.Austen later compiled "fair copies" of 29 of these early works into three bound notebooks, now referred to as the Juvenilia, containing pieces originally written between 1787 and 1793. There is manuscript evidence that Austen continued to work on these pieces as late as the period 1809–11, and that her niece and nephew, Anna and James Edward Austen, made further additions as late as 1814. Among these works are a satirical novel in letters titled Love and Freindship [sic], in which she mocked popular novels of sensibility,[34] and The History of England, a manuscript of 34 pages accompanied by 13 watercolour miniatures by her sister Cassandra.
Austen's History parodied popular historical writing, particularly Oliver Goldsmith's History of England (1764).[35] Austen wrote, for example: "Henry the 4th ascended the throne of England much to his own satisfaction in the year 1399, after having prevailed on his cousin & predecessor Richard the 2nd, to resign it to him, & to retire for the rest of his Life to Pomfret Castle, where he happened to be murdered."[36] Austen's Juvenilia are often, according to scholar Richard Jenkyns, "boisterous" and "anarchic"; he compares them to the work of 18th-century novelist Laurence Sterne and the 20th century comedy group Monty Python.[37]
Adulthood

As Austen grew into adulthood, she continued to live at her parents' home, carrying out those activities normal for women of her age and social standing: she practised the fortepiano, assisted her sister and mother with supervising servants, and attended female relatives during childbirth and older relatives on their deathbeds. She sent short pieces of writing to her newborn nieces Fanny Catherine and Jane Anna Elizabeth.[39] Austen was particularly proud of her accomplishments as a seamstress.[40] She also attended church regularly, socialized frequently with friends and neighbours,[41] and read novels—often of her own composition—aloud with her family in the evenings. Socializing with the neighbours often meant dancing, either impromptu in someone's home after supper or at the balls held regularly at the assembly rooms in the town hall.[42] Her brother Henry later said that "Jane was fond of dancing, and excelled in it".[43]
In 1793, Austen began and then abandoned a short play, later entitled Sir Charles Grandison or the happy Man, a comedy in 6 acts, which she returned to and completed around 1800. This was a short parody of various school textbook abridgments of Austen's favourite contemporary novel, The History of Sir Charles Grandison (1753), by Samuel Richardson.[44] Honan speculates that at some point not long after writing Love and Freindship [sic] in 1789, Austen decided to "write for profit, to make stories her central effort", that is, to become a professional writer.[45] Whenever she made that decision, beginning in about 1793, Austen began to write longer, more sophisticated works.[45]
Between 1793 and 1795, Austen wrote Lady Susan, a short epistolary novel, usually described as her most ambitious and sophisticated early work.[46] It is unlike any of Austen's other works. Austen biographer Claire Tomalin describes the heroine of the novella as a sexual predator who uses her intelligence and charm to manipulate, betray, and abuse her victims, whether lovers, friends or family. Tomalin writes: "Told in letters, it is as neatly plotted as a play, and as cynical in tone as any of the most outrageous of the Restoration dramatists who may have provided some of her inspiration....It stands alone in Austen's work as a study of an adult woman whose intelligence and force of character are greater than those of anyone she encounters."[47]

Early novels
After finishing Lady Susan, Austen attempted her first full-length novel—Elinor and Marianne. Her sister Cassandra later remembered that it was read to the family "before 1796" and was told through a series of letters. Without surviving original manuscripts, there is no way to know how much of the original draft survived in the novel published in 1811 as Sense and Sensibility.[48]

When Austen was twenty, Tom Lefroy, a nephew of neighbours, visited Steventon from December 1795 to January 1796. He had just finished a university degree and was moving to London to train as a barrister. Lefroy and Austen would have been introduced at a ball or other neighbourhood social gathering, and it is clear from Austen's letters to Cassandra that they spent considerable time together: "I am almost afraid to tell you how my Irish friend and I behaved. Imagine to yourself everything most profligate and shocking in the way of dancing and sitting down together." The Lefroy family intervened and sent him away at the end of January. Marriage was impractical, as both Lefroy and Austen must have known. Neither had any money, and he was dependent on a great-uncle in Ireland to finance his education and establish his legal career. If Tom Lefroy later visited Hampshire, he was carefully kept away from the Austens, and Jane Austen never saw him again.[51]
حرمت من الزواج من حبيبها بسبب فقره واعتماده على عمه في ايرلندا

Austen began work on a second novel, First Impressions, in 1796. She completed the initial draft in August 1797 when she was only 21 (it later became Pride and Prejudice); as with all of her novels, Austen read the work aloud to her family as she was working on it and it became an "established favourite". At this time, her father made the first attempt to publish one of her novels. In November 1797, George Austen wrote to Thomas Cadell, an established publisher in London, to ask if he would consider publishing "a Manuscript Novel, comprised in three Vols. about the length of Miss Burney's Evelina" (First Impressions) at the author's financial risk. Cadell quickly returned Mr. Austen's letter, marked "Declined by Return of Post". Austen may not have known of her father's efforts. Following the completion of First Impressions, Austen returned to Elinor and Marianne and from November 1797 until mid-1798, revised it heavily; she eliminated the epistolary format in favour of third-person narration and produced something close to Sense and Sensibility.[54]
During the middle of 1798, after finishing revisions of Elinor and Marianne, Austen began writing a third novel with the working title Susan—later Northanger Abbey—a satire on the popular Gothic novel.[55] Austen completed her work about a year later. In early 1803, Henry Austen offered Susan to Benjamin Crosby, a London publisher, who paid £10 for the copyright. Crosby promised early publication and went so far as to advertise the book publicly as being "in the press", but did nothing more. The manuscript remained in Crosby's hands, unpublished, until Austen repurchased the copyright from him in 1816.[56]

In December 1800, Mr Austen unexpectedly announced his decision to retire from the ministry, leave Steventon, and move the family to Bath. While retirement and travel were good for the elder Austens, Jane Austen was shocked to be told she was moving from the only home she had ever known.
تقاعد والد جين في عام 1800 وقرر الانتقال الى منطقة باث وكان لذلك وقع الصدمة على جين حتى انها لم تتمكن من الكتابة بعد هذا الانتقال القصري

An indication of Austen's state of mind is her lack of productivity as a writer during the time she lived at Bath. She was able to make some revisions to Susan, and she began and then abandoned a new novel, The Watsons, but there was nothing like the productivity of the years 1795–99.Tomalin suggests this reflects a deep depression disabling her as a writer, but Honan disagrees, arguing Austen wrote or revised her manuscripts throughout her creative life, except for a few months after her father died.
مات والدها عام 1805 وعمرها 30 سنه حيث مرض ومات فجأة

In December 1802, Austen received her only proposal of marriage. She and her sister visited Alethea and Catherine Bigg, old friends who lived near Basingstoke. Their younger brother, Harris Bigg-Wither, had recently finished his education at Oxford and was also at home. Bigg-Wither proposed and Austen accepted. As described by Caroline Austen, Jane's niece, and Reginald Bigg-Wither, a descendant, Harris was not attractive—he was a large, plain-looking man who spoke little, stuttered when he did speak, was aggressive in conversation, and almost completely tactless. However, Austen had known him since both were young and the marriage offered many practical advantages to Austen and her family. He was the heir to extensive family estates located in the area where the sisters had grown up. With these resources, Austen could provide her parents a comfortable old age, give Cassandra a permanent home and, perhaps, assist her brothers in their careers. By the next morning, Austen realised she had made a mistake and withdrew her acceptance.[60] No contemporary letters or diaries describe how Austen felt about this proposal.[61] In 1814, Austen wrote a letter to her niece, Fanny Knight, who had asked for advice about a serious relationship, telling her that "having written so much on one side of the question, I shall now turn around & entreat you not to commit yourself farther, & not to think of accepting him unless you really do like him. Anything is to be preferred or endured rather than marrying without Affection".[62]
In 1804, while living in Bath, Austen started but did not complete a new novel, The Watsons. The story centres on an invalid clergyman with little money and his four unmarried daughters. Sutherland describes the novel as "a study in the harsh economic realities of dependent women's lives".[63] Honan suggests, and Tomalin agrees, that Austen chose to stop work on the novel after her father died on 21 January 1805 and her personal circumstances resembled those of her characters too closely for her comfort.]
Mr Austen's final illness had struck suddenly, leaving him, as Austen reported to her brother Francis, "quite insensible of his own state", and he died quickly.[65] Jane, Cassandra, and their mother were left in a precarious financial situation. Edward, James, Henry, and Francis Austen pledged to make annual contributions to support their mother and sisters. For the next four years, the family's living arrangements reflected their financial insecurity. They lived part of the time in rented quarters in Bath and then, beginning in 1806, in Southampton, where they shared a house with Frank Austen and his new wife. A large part of this time they spent visiting various branches of the family.[67]
On 5 April 1809, about three months before the family's move to Chawton, Austen wrote an angry letter to Richard Crosby, offering him a new manuscript of Susan if that was needed to secure immediate publication of the novel, and otherwise requesting the return of the original so she could find another publisher. Crosby replied he had not agreed to publish the book by any particular time, or at all, and that Austen could repurchase the manuscript for the £10 he had paid her and find another publisher. However, Austen did not have the resources to repurchase the book.[68]

Early in 1816, Jane Austen began to feel unwell. She ignored her illness at first and continued to work and to participate in the usual round of family activities. By the middle of that year, her decline was unmistakable to Austen and to her family, and Austen's physical condition began a long, slow, and irregular deterioration culminating in her death the following year.[
في مطلع العام 1816 مرضت جين وتوفيت في ذلك العام عن عمر 41 عام

The majority of Austen biographers rely on Dr. Vincent Cope's tentative 1964 retrospective diagnosis and list her cause of death as Addison's disease. However, her final illness has also been described as Hodgkin's lymphoma.[H] Recent work by Katherine White of Britain's Addison’s Disease Self Help Group suggests that Austen likely died of bovine tuberculosis,[83] a disease (now) commonly associated with drinking unpasteurized milk. One contributing factor or cause of her death, discovered by Linda Robinson Walker and described in the Winter 2010 issue of Persuasions on-line, might be Brill-Zinsser disease, a recurrent form of typhus, which she had as a child. Brill-Zinsser disease is to typhus as shingles is to chicken pox; when a victim of typhus endures stress, malnutrition or another infection, typhus can recur as Brill-Zinsser. ]

- واضح ان حياة جين اوستن كانت تعيسة رغم ان الكثير من المعلومات عنها غير مؤكدة وما يعرف عنها كتب بعد 50 سنه من موتها.
- فمن ناحية عاشت يتم افتراضي حيث عاشت بعيدا عن العائلة حتى سن العاشرة
- مرضت بالتيفوئيد وهي صغيرة
- صمدت بالانتقال من منزلها الى منطقة باث
- تبع ذلك موت الاب الفوجائي
- فشلت في الحب وابعدت عن صديقها بسبب الفقر
- عاشت حياة عوز بعد موت والدها.
- هناك احتمال بأن تكون عانت من مشاكل اخرى مثل مرض الام كون ان اثنين من اخوتها تم تبنيهم من قبل عائلات اخرى وهي ارسلت الى عائلة اخرى ليتم العناية بها.
- المدرسة الداخلية التي ارسلت اليها ابعدتها عن العائلة.

يتمية افتراضيا كونها عاشت بعيدا عن العائلة

Mary Shelley (née Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin; 30 August 1797 – 1 February 1851) was a British novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer, and travel writer, best known for her Gothic novel Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus (1818). She also edited and promoted the works of her husband, the Romantic poet and philosopher Percy Bysshe Shelley.

Her father was the political philosopher William Godwin, and her mother was the philosopher and feminist Mary Wollstonecraft.
Mary Godwin's mother died when she was eleven days old; afterwards, she and her older half-sister, Fanny Imlay, were raised by her father.

When Mary was four, Godwin married his neighbour, Mary Jane Clairmont. Godwin provided his daughter with a rich, if informal, education, encouraging her to adhere to his liberal political theories.
تزوج والدها عندما كانت في الرابعة

In 1814, Mary Godwin began a romantic relationship with one of her father’s political followers, the married Percy Bysshe Shelley.
وقعت في غرام شخص متزوج وهو احد اتباع والدها وسافرت هي واختها الى فرسنا وعادت وهي حامل
Together with Mary's stepsister, Claire Clairmont, they left for France and travelled through Europe; upon their return to England, Mary was pregnant with Percy's child. Over the next two years, she and Percy faced ostracism, constant debt, and the death of their prematurely born daughter.
عانت هي وشيلي من الفقر وموت ابنتهم غير المكتملة عند الولادة
They married in late 1816 after the suicide of Percy Shelley's first wife, Harriet.
تزوجا في اواخر 1816 بعد ان انتحرت زوجة شيلي الاولى

In 1816, the couple famously spent a summer with Lord Byron, John William Polidori, and Claire Clairmont near Geneva, Switzerland, where Mary conceived the idea for her novel Frankenstein. The Shelleys left Britain in 1818 for Italy, where their second and third children died before Mary Shelley gave birth to her last and only surviving child, Percy Florence.
مات كل اولادها الا واحد
In 1822, her husband drowned when his sailing boat sank during a storm in the Bay of La Spezia.
في عام 1822 غرق زوجها بعد غرق قاربه اثناء عاصفه

A year later, Mary Shelley returned to England and from then on devoted herself to the upbringing of her son and a career as a professional author. The last decade of her life was dogged by illness, probably caused by the brain tumour that was to kill her at the age of 53.
مرضت في اخر حياتها مرضا شديدا حيث اصيبت بسرطان الدماغ وماتت وعمرها 53 سنة

Until the 1970s, Mary Shelley was known mainly for her efforts to publish Percy Shelley's works and for her novel Frankenstein, which remains widely read and has inspired many theatrical and film adaptations. Recent scholarship has yielded a more comprehensive view of Mary Shelley’s achievements. Scholars have shown increasing interest in her literary output, particularly in her novels, which include the historical novels Valperga (1823) and Perkin Warbeck (1830), the apocalyptic novel The Last Man (1826), and her final two novels, Lodore (1835) and Falkner (1837). Studies of her lesser-known works such as the travel book Rambles in Germany and Italy (1844) and the biographical articles for Dionysius Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia (1829–46) support the growing view that Mary Shelley remained a political radical throughout her life. Mary Shelley's works often argue that cooperation and sympathy, particularly as practised by women in the family, were the ways to reform civil society. This view was a direct challenge to the individualistic Romantic ethos promoted by Percy Shelley and the Enlightenment political theories articulated by her father, William Godwin
لم يتم الاهتمام بروايتها الا بعد موتها مثل جين اسوتن

استنتاجات اوليه:
بعد دراسة اول عشر روايات من روائع الادب العالمي تبين ما يلي:
اولا: تبين ان كارثة اليتم تعتبر العامل المشترك الاعظم لدى كتاب روائع الروايات وكما يلي:

2 ـ تقدم الرحلة للمؤلف جون بونيان................يتيم الام في سن 16
3 ـ روبنسون كروزو للمؤلف دانييل ديفوف.......يتيم الام في سن 10
4 ـ رحلات جيلفر للمؤلف جوناثان سويفت........يتيم الاب قبل الولاده
5 ـ توم جونز للمؤلف هنري فيلدينغ................يتيم الاب في سن 11

والان دعونا ننتقل لمعرفة سر الروعة في رواية:

11ـ كابوس الدير، للمؤلف توماس لوف بيكوك.