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ايوب صابر 01-05-2013 12:04 PM

Federico del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús García Lorca; 5 June 1898 – 19 August 1936) was a Spanishpoet, dramatist and theatre director. García Lorca achieved international recognition as an emblematic member of the Generation of '27. He was murdered by fascists forces during the Spanish Civil War.[2][3][4] In 2008, a Spanish judge opened an investigation into Lorca's death. The García Lorca family eventually dropped objections to the excavation of a potential gravesite near Alfacar. However, no human remains were found.[5][6]
Early years

García Lorca was born on 5 June 1898, in Fuente Vaqueros, a small town a few miles west of Granada, southern Spain. His father, Federico García Rodríguez, was a landowner with a farm in the fertile vega surrounding Granada and a comfortable villa in the heart of the city.
García Rodríguez saw his fortunes rise with a boom in the sugar industry. García Lorca's mother, Vicenta Lorca Romero, was a teacher and gifted pianist.
In 1909, when the boy was 11, his family moved to the city of Granada. For the rest of his life, he maintained the importance of living close to the natural world, praising his upbringing in the country. In 1915, after graduating from secondary school, García Lorca attended Sacred Heart University. During this time his studies included law, literature and composition. Throughout his adolescence he felt a deeper affinity for theatre and music than literature, training fully as a classical pianist, his first artistic inspirations arising from the scores of Debussy, Chopin and Beethoven. Later, with his friendship with composer Manuel de Falla Spanish folklore became his muse. García Lorca did not begin a career in writing until his piano teacher died in 1916 and his first prose works such as "Nocturne", "Ballade" and "Sonata" drew on musical forms. His milieu of young artists gathered in El Rinconcillo at the cafe Alameda in Granada. During 1916 and 1917, García Lorca traveled throughout Castile, Léon, and Galicia, in northern Spain, with a professor of his university, who also encouraged him to write his first book, Impresiones y Paisajes (Impressions and Landscapes – published 1918). Don Fernando de los Rios persuaded García Lorca's parents to allow the boy to enrol at the progressive, Oxbridge-inspired Residencia de estudiantes in Madrid in 1919.[8]
In June 1929, García Lorca travelled to America with Fernando de los Rios on the SS Olympic, a sister liner to the Titanic.[19] They stayed mostly in New York City, where Rios started a lecture tour and García Lorca enrolled at Columbia University School of General Studies, funded by his parents. He studied English but, as before, was more absorbed by writing than study. He also spent time in Vermont and later in Havana, Cuba. His collection Poeta en Nueva York (A poet in New York, published posthumously in 1942) explores alienation and isolation through some graphically experimental poetic techniques and was influenced by the Wall Street crash which he personally witnessed.
This condemnation of urban capitalist society and materialistic modernity was a sharp departure from his earlier work and label as a folklorist. His play of this time, El Público (The Public), was not published until the late 1970s and has never been published in its entirety, the manuscript lost. However, the Hispanic Society of America in New York City retains several of his personal letters.
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فدريكو جارسيا لوركا
(بالإسبانية: FedericoGarcía Lorca) (و. 5 يونيو1898- 19 أغسطس1936)كان شاعرا إسباني معاصرا. بالإضافة إلى الشعر كان رساما وعازف بيانو ومؤلفا موسيقيا. كان أحد أفراد ما عرف باسم الجيل '27. اغتيل من قبل الثوار الوطنيين وهو في الثامنة والثلاثين من عمره في بدايات الحرب الأهلية الإسبانية. يعده البعض أحد أهم أدباء القرن العشرين.
ولد فيدريكو غارسيا لوركا في الخامس من حزيران 1898 لوالدين إسبانيين في منطقة فيونيت فاغودس في غرناطة، كان والده مزارعاً ثرياً، وأمه معلمة، أخذت على عاتقها تعليمه النطق والكلام،
- لأنه وجد فيهما صعوبة في أول حياته، كما أنه لم يستطع المشي حتى الرابعة من عمره بسبب مرض خطير أصابه عقب الولادة،
-وكان من عدم استطاعته مشاركة الصغار ألعابهم أن نمت قواه التخيلية وأحاسيسه، فراح يعبر عن نفسه بصنع عالم خاص به من المسرح ومسرح العرائس والاستعراضات، ويُسقط على دُماه شخصيات خدم الأسرة المسنين وإخوته الصغار.
كان أول ما اشتراه بما اقتصده من النقود مسرحاً للعرائس في غرناطة، ولم يعق فيدريكو الصغير عدم وجود مسرحيات مطبوعة مع المسرح المشترى فأخذ يكتب مسرحياته الخاصة. ومنذ ذلك الوقت لازمه الشغف بالمسرح الذي قدر أن يكون الجزء الهام من عمله، كما استطاع أن يدندن الألحان الشائعة قبل أن يحسن النطق، وأخذ عن الخدم المسنين الحكايا والأغاني الشعبية. ويتحدث جيلر مودي تورا عن تمثُّل لوركا للأغاني الشعبية وإعادة خلقها قائلاً: (إنه يغنيها، يحلم بها ويعيد كشفها، وبكلمة واحدة يحيلها إلى شعر).
في الوقت الذي لا بد فيه من إلحاق فيدريكو بالمدرسة انتقلت الأسرة إلى غرناطة، وهناك تلقى ما يتلقاه أترابه الذين في مستواه الاجتماعي من الثقافة العادية حتى بلغ سن الجامعة، فبدأ دراسته الجامعية في جامعة غرناطة دون أن يتمها. ثم التحق فيما بعد بجامعة مدريد ولكنه لم ينجز دراسته فيها أيضاً، إذ لم يكن ميالاً إلى الدراسات الأكاديمية أبداً. وكانت اهتماماته متجهة دائماً إلى خارج مدرجات الجامعة، وقد وجد نفسه أسعد حالاً في المقاهي وأحاديث الأصدقاء والتجوال في ريف غرناطة أو بساتينها القريبة وفي الكشف عن العديد من الثقافات والتقاليد التي كونت إقليم الأندلس العريق، وفي التعرف على الغجر الذين قدر لهم أن يكونوا الموضوع الهام الذي يستوحي منه أعظم أعماله.
أثناء إقامة لوركا في غرناطة طبع أول كتاب نثري له (انطباعات ومناظر) عام 1918 وهو حصيلة عديد من الرحلات في إسبانيا.
ثم بدأ التجوال بين غرناطة ومدريد. وخلال عشر سنوات تعرف على أصدقاء أصبحوا من المشاهير وملأ ذكرهم الآفاق، منهم سلفادور دالي، ألكسندر دانييل ألبرت، ولويس جونيك، وبابلو نيرودا. ـ طبع أول ديوان شعر له (كتاب الأشعار) عام 1921 دون أن يثير كثيراً من الانتباه في غير وسطه، ولكن لوركا على كل حال كان كثير الإعراض عن النشر وكان على أصدقائه الأدباء أن يقوموا بالعديد من المحاولات ليحتالوا للفوز بإحدى قصائده لنشرها في دورياتهم. ومع أنه لم ينقطع عن نظم الشعر فإن ديوانه (أغان) لم يظهر حتى عام 1927 غير أنه استطاع بما له من قوة الشخصية أن يؤثر في الشعراء الآخرين من قبل أن تظهر أعماله الهامة. إذ كان يفضل أن ينشد أشعاره، لأنه يعتقد، ويذكر ذلك في مقالته عن الروح المبدعة: (أن الشعر بحاجة إلى ناقل.. إلى كائن حي). وفي تلاوته لهذه الأشعار امتحن قدرة شعره على التأثير أكثر من مطبوعاته. وكيما نفهم شخصيته المبدعة وسحرها يحسن أن نذكر بعض ما قاله معاصروه.
كتب رافائيل ألبرتي: (كان لوركا يتدفق بشحنة من الرقة الكهربائية والفتنة، ويلف مستمعيه بجو أخاذ من السحر، فيأسرهم حين يتحدث أو ينشد الشعر أو يرتجل مشهداً مسرحياً أو يغني أو يعزف على البيانو..). وحتى الشاعر بدور ساليناس الذي يسبقه بسبع سنوات، يقول فيه: (لقد كان العيد والبهجة، يشع علينا وليس لنا إلا أن نتبعه). وفي عام 1920 عُرض فصل من مسرحية له (رقية الفراشة المشؤومة) في مدريد، وأما أولى مغامراته المسرحية الناجحة فكانت المسرحية النثرية التاريخية (ماريانا بنيدا) التي قدمت في مدريد عام 1927، وشهد العام التالي ظهور أكثر دواوين لوركا شعبية (حكايا غجرية) الذي لاقى نجاحاً مباشراً في أسبانيا وفي جميع البلاد الناطقة بالإسبانية، إذ إنه لم يكن يكتب كغالبية شعراء عصره للخاصة، بل كان يقول: (أريد للصور التي أستمدها من شخصياتي أن تفهمها تلك الشخصيات نفسها)، فقد فُطر على الرغبة في أن يفهمه كل إنسان ويحبه كل إنسان من خلال شعره، وهذا ما حققه بلا ريب، فحتى الذين ليس لهم ميول أدبية يفهمونه وإن لم يفهموا تمام الفهم، فهم على الأقل يحسّون ما يقوله الشاعر.
بعد ذلك سنحت لـ فيدريكو فرصة الارتحال إلى الولايات المتحدة، فوصل إلى نيويورك عام 1929، وأصيب بخيبة أمل من الحضارة الأمريكية المختلفة تماماً عن الحضارة الإسبانية، ليعود بعدها إلى الوطن ويصدر مجموعته الشعرية (شاعر في نيويورك) التي ألبسته ثوباً مغايراً لرجل اختلفت اهتماماته وتفكيراته، وقد تسلم عام 1931 جوقة مسرح باركا، ثم شارك في احتفالات الذكرى الثانية لإعلان الجمهورية. وفي عام 1933 عرض مسرحيته (بوداس دي سانجز) وهي حكاية ريفية، وضع فيها كل ما عاناه خلال تلك الفترة.
وبالرغم من أنه كان مقلاً بكتابته للمسرح. لكن ما كتبه من مسرحيات، مكنته من بلوغ سلم الشهرة وجعلته من أفضل كتاب المسرح بإسبانيا. ومن مسرحياته أيضاً، مسرحية (برنارد ألبا) التي نشرت وعرضت بعد وفاته، وهي مسرحية واقعية، عنيفة، كان قد كتب معظمها نثراً. ومع مرور الزمن أخذ لوركا بالتغير وتفهُّم الحياة أكثر، وأصبح ينظر إليها من منظار الحقيقة الحية: (في هذا الزمن المأسوي في العالم، يجب على الفنان أن يُضحك ويُبكي جمهوره، ويجب أن يترك الزنبق الأبيض مغموراً حتى وسطه بالوحل وذلك لمساندة الذين يبحثون عنه).
هذه التعرية الكاملة للزمن النابعة من شاعريته، المتوقدة، المنتفضة جعلته يسافر من مدريد إلى غرناطة التي تغلي سياسياً بحدوث انتفاضة.. ومع وصوله إليها اندلعت النيران العنيفة واعتقل صهر لوركا، محافظ مدينة غرناطة وعدد من أقربائه الاشتراكيين، لأنهم أيدوا الانتفاضة. في هذه الفترة كان لوركا في منزله بـ (سان نينسيت) وقد فُتِّش أكثر من مرة ولم يعثر على شيء ضده، رغم أنه عُنّف وضُرب أثناء التفتيش وقد أبعدته أسرته إلى منزل الشاعر (روزال) ربيب الأسرة الحاكمة الكتائبية المناهضة التي كان لها دور فعال في غرناطة. وكان لوركا يلتقي بالكثير من المناهضين ويتحدث إليهم. وفي تموز 1936 أُعدم لوركا رمياً بالرصاص. كانت التهمة الموجهة إليه (أنه مثقف.. صنع بكتبه ما لم تصنعه المسدسات). وكما قال بابلو نيرودا الشاعر التشيلي الشهير: (إن الذين أرادوا بإطلاقهم النار عليه أن يصيبوا قلب شعبه، لم يخطئوا الاختيار). وهكذا أُسدل الستار على مسرح حياة الشاعر الإسباني (فيدريكو غارثيا لوركا) إثر مقتله بيد عصبة مجهولة في الأيام الأولى من الحرب الأهلية، وقد جرى إعدامه كما يظن في فيثنار، على التلال القريبة من غرناطة. ولكن جسده (كما كان قد تنبأ) لم يعثر عليه: (وعرفت أنني قتلت وبحثوا عن جثتي في المقاهي والمدافن والكنائس فتحوا البراميل والخزائن سرقوا ثلاث جثثٍ ونزعوا أسنانها الذهبية ولكنهم لم يجدوني قط) فعلاً لم يجدوك أيها العندليب، لأن صوتك المغني للحرية كان يزهر في السماء.سحرالكلمات.

تأخر في النطق وتأخر في المشي حتى سن الرابعة بسبب مرض الم به.
لا نعرف تحديدا متى مات والديه لكنه عاش طفولة مأزومة.

مأزوم.


ايوب صابر 01-05-2013 12:05 PM




by William Shakespeare, England, (1564-1616)


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تراجيديا هاملت Hamlet

واحدة من أهم مسرحيات شكسبير. كتبت في عام 1600 أو 1602 وهي من أكثر المسرحيات تمثيلاً وإنتاجاً وطباعة فهي من كلاسيكيات الأدب العالمي، وربما ترجع شهرتها إلي العبارة الشهيرة والسؤال الذي يناجي فيه هاملت نفسه قائلاً : أكون أو لا أكون. وقد استقاها شكسبير من حكاية بطولية رواها ساكسو غراماتيكوس[1].
ترجمت المسرحية إلي جميع لغات العالم وهناك ترجمات عديدة باللغة العربية. و قد قام محمد صبحي ببطولتها وإخراجها في بداية حياتة الفنية وحقق من خلالها نجاح باهر كان السبب في أن يتم تدوين اسمة في الموسوعة البريطانية للمسرح
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ويليام شكسبير أديب وكاتب مسرحي وشاعر إنجليزي ،ولد (تم تعميده) في 26 أبريل 1564م- 23 أبريل 1616 بكنيسة سترت فورد ،آفون ، بانجلترا و يعتبر أعظم أديب في تاريخ إنجلترا وتعتبر مسرحيات وقصائده كلاسيكيات في أقسام الأدب الإنجليزي في جامعات العالم. كما أن أعماله كانت مسرحاً ومادة للدراسات العليا والنقدية وهناك من قرأ أعمال شاكسبير قراءات ماركسية أو حتى رومانسية ، بالأضافة إلى أن أعماله تم اقتباسها في الكثير من الأفلام والمسرحيات حول العالم.




كلام عن مسرحية «هاملت» لشكسبير

في مسرحية «هاملت» تعمد شكسبير أن يكون هوراشيو هو راوي القصة، فهوراشيو هو صديق هاملت الذي يعرفه حق المعرفة، وقد راقب من البداية ملابسات أحواله، وتفصيلات مآزقه المعقدة في مواجهة عمه الفاسد كلوديوس، الذي قتل والد هاملت واغتصب عرشه وزوجته، (أم هاملت)، هوراشيو إذن هو الشاهد الأمين الذي اختاره شكسبير لكي لا تتشوه صورة النبل والعدل والجسارة التي تميز بها هاملت في خوض معركته، ولكي يؤكد أن بقية شخصيات المسرحية، المكونة للسلطة الجائرة والعناصر المتاخمة لها، والتي انضم إليها كثير من النقاد والمحللين الأدبيين، كان من مصلحتها التكالب على هاملت للقضاء عليه معنويا وماديا بشتى الطرق، ولو باختراق الصداقة والحب والأمومة!

هوراشيو هو المثقف الواعي الذي يقف مع الشعب لكنه يعلو برأسه المفكر الذي قرأ التاريخ الإنساني وفهم حاضره السياسي، وامتلأ قلبه بالحب نحو البشر وصدره بإدراك قوتهم وضعفهم، فأصبح مزيجا من الحكمة يلخصها، أو يرسمها، شكسبير في قول هاملت: «هوراشيو إنك لرجل شريف، لن ألتقي بمثيله.... أنت الذي اختارته نفسي منذ أن بدأت تميز بين الناس، لأنك كالذي عانى كل شيء فأصبح بذلك لا يعاني شيئا، يتلقى من الأقدار الخير والشر بامتنان واحد، وطوبى لهؤلاء الذين يتوازن عندهم العقل والعاطفة، فلا يصبحون مزمارا في يد الحظ يعزف عليه ما يشاء، اعطني هذا الرجل الذي يرفض أن يكون عبدا لأهوائه وسوف أضعه في قلب قلبي».

تنقسم مسرحية هاملت إلى عالمين: عالم داخل القصر وآخر خارجه، هوراشيو من خارج القصر لكنه، بسبب صداقته لهاملت، له خطوات داخله، وهاملت من داخل القصر لكنه بقضيته وموقفه ينتمي إلى حيث تتوافق مصلحة الشعب مع مصالحه، وحيث يكون الناس الحماية له.

من الفصل الأول نرى هوراشيو بين الحراس يحلل لهم دواعي الحراسة المكثفة، وهو ينتظر ليختبر بنفسه ماهية الشبح الذي يشبه الملك السابق، هاملت والد هاملت، في رداء الحرب ويظهر كل ليلة بعد انتصاف الليل، ليختفي عند صياح الديك في الفجر. بعد أن يطالب ابنه الأمير هاملت بالثأر له من قاتله. ويستمر هوراشيو على طول المسرحية وعرضها وعمقها، مراقبا ومحللا وسندا ناصحا لهاملت، فهو المستودع الأمين لأسراره، الفاهم لأدق مشاعره وآلامه، وحين يتخلى برهة، في المشهد الأخير، عن عقلانيته ويحاول أن يقتل نفسه لأنه لن يتحمل الحياة بعد رحيل هاملت، يمنعه هاملت وهو يوصيه بأن يستمر على قيد الحياة، مبينا أن بقاءه على قيد الحياة هو التضحية الحقيقية التي يقدمها لصديقه هاملت «أه يا إلهي، هوراشيو، تعلم كم سيجرح اسمي من بعدي، لو ظلت الأشياء هكذا غير معروفة... تحمل التنفس بصعوبة، في هذا العالم القاسي، لتحكي قصتي».

ويطيع هوراشيو ويتحمل مسؤولية رواية قصة هاملت بدوافعها الحقيقية منظور شكسبير، الذي أراد في بناء شخصية هاملت أن يطرحه ممثلا للحق ضد الباطل الذي تشخصن في الملك الفاسد القاتل كلوديوس، ولنا أن نتخيل كيف يمكن أن تتشوه الأحداث لو أنها سردت من خلال كلوديوس وحاشيته.

عندما يتعمد شكسبير أن يحكي حكاية هاملت عن لسان هوراشيو، فهو يعني أنها تختلف عما لو كانت عن لسان أمه، أو عن بولونيوس رئيس الوزراء ومستشار كلوديوس وجاسوس السلطة المتلصص المتصنت، إن أم هاملت، التي تزوجت عمه قاتل والده، وبولونيوس السياسي الفاسد، طرفان في القوة المعادية، يقفان بمصالحهما وأخطائهما في معسكر كلوديوس، ولذلك فهما ـ (وقد تأثر بهما الكثير من النقاد على مر التاريخ الأدبي لهذه المسرحية) ـ لا بد أن يريا حزن هاملت النبيل اكتئابا مرضيا، ووقفته العنيدة أمام جرائم كلوديوس ميولا انتحارية عبثية، وتأملاته، لإعادة ترتيب أوراقه وامتحان قدراته، ترددا وعجزا عن الفعل، وانفجاره حسرة عندما يكتشف أن براءة أوفيليا، حبيبته، تستغل للإيقاع به فيعتبر أن هذا الاستغلال، لاختراقه ومعرفة خططه، نوع من هتك العفة ومن العهر، هذا الغضب المنطقي من جانب هاملت، يريانه جنونا حقيقيا، ومحاولته انتشال أمه من براثن الإثم الذي ارتكبته بالزواج من قاتل منحل، وقاحة وعقوقا ومشاعر غير طبيعية.

قصد شكسبير ألا تكون رواية قصة هاملت بلسان شخصية من شأنها أن تسيئ تفسيره، ولذلك كان من الضروري أن نرى في اختياره لهوراشيو «راويا» نقطة جوهرية، وللأسف كانت هذه النقطة الجوهرية هي المفتاح الذي تجاهله كثير من النقاد عن بصر كفيف، أو عن عمد في بعض الأحيان، مع أنه المفتاح الوحيد الذي علينا أن ندخل به المسرحية لتتوهج أمأمنا، بلا لبس أو تشويش، إضاءات باهرة تبرز أصل حكاية هاملت: المثقف صاحب الموقف، الذي يقوي عقله بالإيمان، ويدعم إيمانه بالعقل.

ايوب صابر 01-05-2013 12:07 PM

William Shakespeare

is one of the most widely read authors and possibly the best dramatist ever to live. The actual date of his birth is not known, but traditionally April 23rd 1564 (St George's Day) has been his accepted birthday, as this was three days before his baptism. He died on the same date in 1616, aged fifty-two.The life of William Shakespeare can be divided into three acts. The first twenty years of his life were spent in Stratford-upon-Avon where he grew up, went to school, got married and became a father. The next twenty-five years he spent as an actor and playwright in London; and he spent his last few years back in Stratford-upon-Avon, where he enjoyed his retirement in moderate wealth gained from his successful years in the theatre.William was the eldest son of tradesman John Shakespeare and Mary Arden, and the third of eight children. His father was later elected mayor of Stratford, which was the highest post a man in civic politics could attain. In sixteenth-century England, William was lucky to survive into adulthood; syphilis, scurvy, smallpox, tuberculosis, typhus and dysentery shortened life expectancy at the time to approximately thirty-five years. The Bubonic Plague took the lives of many and was believed to have been the cause of death for three of William's seven siblings. Little is known of William's childhood, other than it is thought that he attended the local grammar school, where he studied Latin and English Literature. In 1582, at the age of eighteen, William married a local farmer's daughter, Anne Hathaway, who was eight years his senior and three months pregnant. During their marriage they had three children: Susanna, born on May 26th 1583 and twins, Hamnet and Judith, born on February 2nd 1585. Hamnet, William's only son, caught Bubonic Plague and died aged just eleven. Five years into his marriage William moved to London and appeared in many small parts at The Globe Theatre, then one of the biggest theatres in England. His first appearance in public as a poet was in 1593 with "Venus and Adonis" and again in the following year with "The Rape of Lucrece". Six years later, in 1599, he became joint proprietor of The Globe Theatre.When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was succeeded by her cousin King James of Scotland. King James supported Shakespeare and his band of actors and gave them license to call themselves "The King's Men" in return for entertaining the court. In just twenty-three years, between 1590 and 1613, William Shakespeare is attributed with writing thirty-eight plays, one-hundred-and-fifty-four sonnets and five poems. No original manuscript exists for any of his plays, so it is hard to accurately date them. However, from their contents and reports of the day it is believed that his first play was A"The Taming of the ShrewA" and that his last complete work was A"Two Noble KinsmenA", written two years before he died. The cause of his death remains unknown.He was buried on April 25th 1616,two days after his death, at the Church of the Holy Trinity (the same Church where he had been baptised fifty-two years earlier). His gravestone bears these words, believed to have been written by William himself:- "Good friend for Jesus sake forbear,To dig the dust enclosed here!Blest be the man that spares these stones,And curst be he that moves my bones"At the time of his death, William had substantial properties, which he bestowed on his family and associates from the theatre. In his will he left his wife, the former Anne Hathaway, his second best bed!William Shakespeare's last direct descendant died in 1670. She was his granddaughter, Elizabeth.

ايوب صابر 01-05-2013 12:08 PM

ويليام شكسبير

(1564 ـ 1616) كبير الشعراء الإنكليز. كان ممثلاً ومؤلفاً مسرحياً. سبر في مسرحياته أغوار النفس البشرية، وحلّلها في بناء متساوق جعلها أشبه شيء بالسيمفونيات الشعرية. من أشهر آثاره الكوميدية كوميديا الأخطاء (1592/1593) وتاجر البندقية (1596/1597). ومن أشهر آثاره التراجيدية روميو وجوليت (1594/1595)، ويوليوس قيصر (1599/1600) وهاملت (1600/1601)، وعطيل (1604/1605)، ومكبث (1605/1606)، والملك لير (1605/1606 أيضاً).
حياته

يعد شكسبير من أبرز الشخصيات في الأدب العالمي إن لم يكن أبرزها على الإطلاق. يصعب تحديد عبقريته بمعيار بعينه من معايير النقد الأدبي. وإن كانت حكمته التي وضعها على لسان شخصيات رواياته خالدة في كل زمان. هناك تكهنات وروايات عديدة عن حقيقة شخصيته التي يكتنفها الغموض والإبهام. وعن حياته التي لا يعرف عنها إلا القدر اليسير. والثابت أن أباه كان رجلاً له مكانته في المجتمع، وكانت أمه من عائلة ميسورة الحال. وقيل إنه بلغ حداً من التعليم، مكنه من التدريس في بلدته ستراتفورد – أون – آفون التي يوجد بها الآن مسرح يسمى باسمه، يقوم بالتمثيل على خشبته أكبر الممثلين المتخصصين في رواياته. ومن الثابت أيضاً أنه تزوج من آن هاثاواي، وأنجب منها ثلاثة أطفال، وفي 1588 انتقل إلى لندن وربط حياته بالمسرح هناك. وفي 1589 أخرجت أولى مسرحياته وهي أما مسرحية كوميديا الأخطاء أو الجزء الأول من مسرحية هنري السادس. وفي 1599 اشترك في إدارة مسرح جلوب الشهير. وقد كان شكسبير رجل عصره على الرغم من عالمية فنه إذ تأثر إلى حد بعيد بمعاصريه من كتاب المسرح مثل توماس كيد وكريستوفر مارلو، وخاطب مثلهم الذوق الشعبي في عصره وهو الذوق الذي كان يهوى المآسي التاريخية بما فيها من عنف ومشاهد دامية. كما كان يهوى المشاهد الهزلية ذات الطابع المكشوف التي كانت تتخلل المسرحيات التراجيدية لتخفف من حدة وقعها. غير أن شكسبير هذب القصص التي نقلها عن المؤرخ هوليتشد لتاريخ إنجلترا واسكتلندا كما هو الحال في مسرحيات ماكبث، والملك لير، وسمبلين، وريتشارد الثالث، وعن المؤرخ الروماني بلوتارك كما في مسرحية أنطونيو وكليوباترا. وأضاف إلى ذلك كله عمق تحليله للنفس البشرية، فضلاً عن شاعريته الفياضة في تصوير المواقف التاريخية والعاطفية الخالدة حتى جعل من المسرح الإنجليزي فناً عالمياً رفيعاً. ومن المتفق عليه بين معظم الباحثين والدارسين أن 38 من المسرحيات لا يشكل في نسبتها إليه، وأن مراحل إنتاجه الأدبي يمكن تقسيمها إلى مراحل أربع: أولها (1590 – 1594) وتحوى مجموعة من المسرحيات التاريخية منها كوميديا الأخطاء، وهنري السادس وتيتوس اندرونيكوس، والسيدان من فيرونا وجهد الحب الضائع والملك جون، وريتشارد الثالث، وترويض النمرة والأخيرتان ترجمتا إلى العربية، والثانية هي المرحلة الغنائية (1595 – 1600) وتشتمل على معظم قصائده الشهيرة وبعض مسرحياته الخفيفة مثل ريتشارد الثاني وحلم منتصف ليلة صيف وتاجر البندقية التي ترجمت جميعاً إلى العربية مع بعض روائعه الشهيرة مثل روميو وجوليت، وهنري الخامس، ويوليوس قيصر، وكما تهواه وقد ترجمت جميعاً إلى العربية. ومن مسرحيات هذه المرحلة كذلك زوجات وندسور المرحات وضجيج ولا طحن، أما المرحلة الثالثة (1600 – 1608) فهي أهم المراحل على الإطلاق، إذ تمثل نضوجه الفني، فقد كتب فيها أعظم مسرحياته التراجيدية مثل هاملت، وعطيل، والملك لير وماكبث وأنتوني وكليوباترا، وبركليز وكريولينس ودقة بدقة وقد ترجم معظمها إلى العربية. ومنها ما ترجم أكثر من مرة، ومنها ما بلغ عدد ترجماته العشرة مثل هاملت. ومن مسرحيات هذه المرحلة أيضاً تيمون الأثيني. وخير ما انتهى بخير. ثم تأتي المرحلة الرابعة (1609 – 1613) التي اختتم بها حياته الفنية وقد اشتملت على مسرحيات هنري الثامن، والعاصفة مما ترجم إلى العربية، وعلى مسرحيتي قصة الشتاء وسمبلين. وفي هذه المرحلة نجد العواصف النفسية العنيفة وقد خبت وتحولت في نفس الشاعر إلى نظرة تقبل ورضى وأمل وتأمل. .

ايوب صابر 01-05-2013 12:10 PM

Early life

William Shakespeare

was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden, the daughter of an affluent landowning farmer.[8] He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual birthdate remains unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April, St George's Day.[9] This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholar's mistake, has proved appealing to biographers, since Shakespeare died 23 April 1616.[10] He was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son.[11]
Although no attendance records for the period survive, most biographers agree that Shakespeare was probably educated at the King's New School in Stratford,[12] a free school chartered in 1553,[13] about a quarter-mile from his home. Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era, but the grammar curriculum was standardised by royal decree throughout England,[14] and the school would have provided an intensive education in Latin grammar based upon Latin classical authors.[15]

At the age of 18, Shakespeare married the 26-year-old Anne Hathaway. The consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day two of Hathaway's neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage.[16] The ceremony may have been arranged in some haste, since the Worcester chancellor allowed the marriage banns to be read once instead of the usual three times,[17] and six months after the marriage Anne gave birth to a daughter, Susanna, baptised 26 May 1583.[18] Twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585.[19] Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596.[20]
After the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592, and scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare's "lost years".[21] Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories. Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare’s first biographer, recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to escape prosecution for deer poaching in the estate of local squire Thomas Lucy. Shakespeare is also supposed to have taken his revenge on Lucy by writing a scurrilous ballad about him.[22] Another 18th-century story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London.[23] John Aubrey reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster.[24] Some 20th-century scholars have suggested that Shakespeare may have been employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of Lancashire, a Catholic landowner who named a certain "William Shakeshafte" in his will.[25] Little evidence substantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his death, and Shakeshafte was a common name in the Lancashire area.[26]
London and theatrical career

"All the world's a stage,
and all the men and women merely players:
they have their exits and their entrances;
and one man in his time plays many parts..."

As You Like It, Act II, Scene 7, 139–42[27]

It is not known exactly when Shakespeare began writing, but contemporary allusions and records of performances show that several of his plays were on the London stage by 1592.[28] By then, he was sufficiently well known in London to be attacked in print by the playwright Robert Greene in his Groats-Worth of Wit:
...there is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes factotum, is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country.[29]
Scholars differ on the exact meaning of these words,[30] but most agree that Greene is accusing Shakespeare of reaching above his rank in trying to match university-educated writers such as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Nashe and Greene himself (the "university wits").[31] The italicised phrase parodying the line "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" from Shakespeare's Henry VI, Part 3, along with the pun "Shake-scene", identifies Shakespeare as Greene's target. Here Johannes Factotum—"Jack of all trades"— means a second-rate tinkerer with the work of others, rather than the more common "universal genius".[30][32]
Greene's attack is the earliest surviving mention of Shakespeare’s career in the theatre. Biographers suggest that his career may have begun any time from the mid-1580s to just before Greene's remarks.[33] From 1594, Shakespeare's plays were performed by only the Lord Chamberlain's Men, a company owned by a group of players, including Shakespeare, that soon became the leading playing company in London.[34] After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, the company was awarded a royal patent by the new king, James I, and changed its name to the King's Men.[35]
In 1599, a partnership of company members built their own theatre on the south bank of the River Thames, which they called the Globe. In 1608, the partnership also took over the Blackfriars indoor theatre. Records of Shakespeare's property purchases and investments indicate that the company made him a wealthy man.[36] In 1597, he bought the second-largest house in Stratford, New Place, and in 1605, he invested in a share of the parish tithes in Stratford.[37]
Some of Shakespeare's plays were published in quarto editions from 1594. By 1598, his name had become a selling point and began to appear on the title pages.[38] Shakespeare continued to act in his own and other plays after his success as a playwright. The 1616 edition of Ben Jonson's Works names him on the cast lists for Every Man in His Humour (1598) and Sejanus His Fall (1603).[39] The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson’s Volpone is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career was nearing its end.[40] The First Folio of 1623, however, lists Shakespeare as one of "the Principal Actors in all these Plays", some of which were first staged after Volpone, although we cannot know for certain which roles he played.[41] In 1610, John Davies of Hereford wrote that "good Will" played "kingly" roles.[42] In 1709, Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet's father.[43] Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in As You Like It and the Chorus in Henry V,[44] though scholars doubt the sources of the information.[45]
Shakespeare divided his time between London and Stratford during his career. In 1596, the year before he bought New Place as his family home in Stratford, Shakespeare was living in the parish of St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, north of the River Thames.[46] He moved across the river to Southwark by 1599, the year his company constructed the Globe Theatre there.[47] By 1604, he had moved north of the river again, to an area north of St Paul's Cathedral with many fine houses. There he rented rooms from a French Huguenot named Christopher Mountjoy, a maker of ladies' wigs and other headgear.[48]

ايوب صابر 01-05-2013 12:11 PM

william Shakespeare

was baptized on April 26, 1564, in Stratford-upon-Avon, England. From roughly 1594 onward he was an important member of the Lord Chamberlain’s Men company of theatrical players. Written records give little indication of the way in which Shakespeare’s professional life molded his artistry. All that can be deduced is that over the course of 20 years, Shakespeare wrote plays that capture the complete range of human emotion and conflict.
Mysterious Origins
Known throughout the world, the works of William Shakespeare have been performed in countless hamlets, villages, cities and metropolises for more than 400 years.
And yet, the personal history of William Shakespeare is somewhat a mystery.
There are two primary sources that provide historians with a basic outline of his life. One source is his work--the plays, poems and sonnets--and the other is official documentation such as church and court records. However, these only provide brief sketches of specific events in his life and provide little on the person who experienced those events.
Early Life

Though no birth records exist, church records indicate that a William Shakespeare was baptized at Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon on April 26, 1564. From this, it is believed he was born on or near April 23, 1564, and this is the date scholars acknowledge as William Shakespeare's birthday.
Located 103 miles west of London, during Shakespeare's time Stratford-upon-Avon was a market town bisected with a country road and the River Avon. William was the third child of John Shakespeare, a leather merchant, and Mary Arden, a local landed heiress. William had two older sisters, Joan and Judith, and three younger brothers, Gilbert, Richard and Edmund. Before William's birth, his father became a successful merchant and held official positions as alderman and bailiff, an office resembling a mayor. However, records indicate John's fortunes declined sometime in the late 1570s.
Scant records exist of William's childhood, and virtually none regarding his education. Scholars have surmised that he most likely attended the King's New School, in Stratford, which taught reading, writing and the classics. Being a public official's child, William would have undoubtedly qualified for free tuition. But this uncertainty regarding his education has led some to raise questions about the authorship of his work and even about whether or not William Shakespeare ever existed.
Married Life

William Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway on November 28, 1582, in Worcester, in Canterbury Province. Hathaway was from Shottery, a small village a mile west of Stratford. William was 18 and Anne was 26, and, as it turns out, pregnant. Their first child, a daughter they named Susanna, was born on May 26, 1583. Two years later, on February 2, 1585, twins Hamnet and Judith were born,. Hamnet later died of unknown causes at age 11.
After the birth of the twins, there are seven years of William Shakespeare's life where no records exist

ليس هناك شيء مؤكد بخصوص حياته، وعليه ليس لنا الان ان نعتبره
مجهول الطفولة.

ايوب صابر 01-05-2013 12:13 PM

History


by Elsa Morante, Italy, (1918-1985)


HISTORY was written nearly 3 decades after Morante spent a year hiding from the Germans in remote farming villages in the mountains south of Rome. There she witnessed the full impact of the war and first formed the ambition to write an account of what history does when it reaches the realm of ordinary people struggling for life and bread. The central character in this powerful and unforgiving novel is Ida Mancuso, a schoolteacher whose husband has died and whose feckless teenage son treats the war as his playground. A German soldier on his way to North Africa rapes her and leaves her pregnant with a boy whose survival becomes Ida's passion, and her source of joy and meaning amid universal catastrophe

==
Born in Rome in 1918, Morante was married to the writer Alberto Moravia. During the last years of World War II, the couple were refugees in the countryside near Cassino. Her first novel, MENZOGNA E SORTILEGIO (1948) was a critical success and won the Viareggio Prize. She was not a prolific writer, with L'ISOLA DI ARTURO appearing nearly ten years later. At the time of publication in 1974 HISTORY was called the novel of the century. Morante died in Rome on November 25, 1985.

ايوب صابر 01-05-2013 12:13 PM

Elsa Morante (
18 August 1912 – 25 November 1985) was an Italiannovelist, perhaps best known for her novel La storia (History).
Biography</SPAN>

Elsa Morante was born in Rome in 1912, and except for a period during World War II, would reside in her home city until her death in 1985.
She married the novelist Alberto Moravia in 1941, and through him she met many of the leading Italian thinkers and writers of the day.
Morante began writing short stories which appeared in various publications and periodicals, including periodicals for children, in the 1930s. Her first book was a collection of some of the stories, Il Gioco Segreto, published in 1941. It was followed in 1942 by a children's book, La Bellissime avventure di Cater&igrave; dalla Trecciolina (rewritten in 1959 as Le straordinarie avventure di Caterina).
Towards the end of World War II, Morante with her husband, novelist and film critic Alberto Moravia, fearful because both were half Jewish, fled to the area around the Ciociara region near Rome, a flight that inspired Morante's "La storia" and Moravia's "La Ciociara" (translated into English as "Two Women" and later made into a film with Sofia Loren). Southern Italy is the backdrop for much of her work. She began translatingKatherine Mansfield during this period, as well as working on her first novel—she even risked returning to war-torn Rome to retrieve the manuscript of "Menzogna e sortilegio" and obtain winter clothes.
Following the war, Morante and Moravia met American translator William Weaver, who helped them to find an American audience. Her first novel, 1948's Menzogna e sortilegio, won the prestigious Viareggio Prize, and was later published in the United States as House of Liars in 1951. However, Morante and others found the English translation quite poorly done, to Morante's great disappointment.
Morante's next novel, L'isola di Arturo, appeared in 1957 and won the Strega Prize. Much of the work she had written in the meantime, she had destroyed, although she did publish a novella, The Andalusian Shawl, and a poem, The Adventure. Her next work, Il mondo salvato dai ragazzini (The World Saved by Children), a mix of poetry, songs and a play, many addressed to her lover Bill Morrow, an American, did not appear until 1968. Freudian psychology, Plato, Pier Paolo Pasolini, and Simone Weil have all been cited as influences on her writing.
Morante and Moravia separated in 1961, and Morante continued to write sporadically. La storia (History), a story about Rome during World War II, appeared in 1974, which although a bestseller in Italy for the publishing house Einaudi, issued in an economical paperback edition at Morante's request, provoked a furious and at times negative reaction from literary critics on the left, who disliked its anti-ideological polemic. After her friend Pasolini wrote a negative review of the book, she broke off their friendship.
Her final novel, 1982's Aracoeli, has been seen as a summation, albeit by some critics a pessimistic one, of motifs and trends present in all of her writing, such as the importance of children and childhood, and private worlds in which fantasy provides an escape from dreary external realities.
The first English language biography of Morante, A Woman of Rome, by the American writer Lily Tuck, was published in 2008
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Italian novelist, short-story writer and poet, whose most famous work, La storia (1974), was called at the time of its publication the novel of the century. The penetrating study of the impact of WW II on European culture was immediately translated into several languages. Elsa Morante first achieved fame with Menzogna e sortilegio (1948, House of Liars), which received the Viareggio Prize. Her final novel, Aracoeli (1982), earned her the Prix Medicis Etranger. Morante was at one time (1941-1963) married to novelist Alberto Moravia; they later separated.
"Nothing very new, in the great world. Like all the centuries and the millennia that have preceded it on earth, the new century also observes the well-known, immobile principle of historical dynamics: power to some, servitude to the others." (in La Storia)
Elsa Morante was born in Rome, the daughter of Francesco Lo Monaco, a Sicilian, and Irma Poggubonzi, of Jewish descent of her mother's side.
Elsa was the oldest of four surviving children, who all got a Catholic education.
- She grew up believing that her mother's second husband, Augusto Morante was her father. However, due to his impotence Irma made him sleep alone.
- The family secret was unveiled when she was in her late teens. While keeping her private life to herself, Morante also fabulated many details of her life.
Both Irma, a friend of Maria Montessori, and Augusto were teachers. The family moved to Monte Verde Nuovo in 1922, where Morante began to write stories and poems.
- After completing her secondary school education, she left home.
To support herself, she gave Latin and Italian lesson, and resorted to prostitution. For a short period, she studied literature at the University of Rome. Her early stories were published in such magazines as Il Corriere dei Piccoli, I diritti della scuola, and Oggi. Some of them were written under the pseudonym Antonio Carrera.
Morante's marriage with the writer Alberto Moravia, an opponent of Mussolini's fascist government, brought her into contact with the leading Italian writers and intellectuals of the day. They had met in 1937, when she was living with an older man; she took then a younger lover and became acquainted with Moravia. He was attracted to her by her personality and he also realized that she was a born writer, as though descended from some cantastorie, a wandering story-teller and ballad singer. "I never fell in love with Elsa. I loved her, but I did not manage to lose my mind, that is I was never in love." (Moravia in Vida di Moravia, 1990)
Morante's first book, Il gioco segreto (1941), consisted of short pieces, several of which had been published in periodicals. It was followed by Le bellissime avventure di Cater&igrave; dalla trecciolina (1942), a children's book, which was later expanded as Le straordinarie avventure di Caterina (1959).
During the last years of World War II, Morante lived the life of a refugee in the countryside near Cassino, hiding from the fascist authorities. Later the rural world of the south played an important part in her fiction. In the late 1940s, the American translator William Weaver arrived in Rome and became friends with a number of writers, among them Moravia and Morante, and made their work known in the United States. Morante's Menzogna e sortilegio was written in poetic language and showed the influence of Katherine Mansfield, whose works Morante had translated. The book achieved a critical success and was translated in an awkwardly cut version into English and published in the United States under the title House of Liars (1951). Menzogna e sortilegio, set in a Sicily both modern and legendary, presented themes that were central in Morante's works: memories, dreams and obsessions spanning over generations, a young, sensitive person in rebellion against bourgeois traditions, a private world threatened by external reality. The Hungarian philosopher and literature theoretician Gy&ouml;rgy Luk&aacute;cs placed Morante at the same level as Thomas Mann.
Morante was not a prolific writer. Her next novel, L'isola di Arturo (Arturo's Island), appeared nearly ten years later and combined fantasy with Freudian themes. During this period she destroyed much of her texts, but wrote a novella, 'The Andalusian Shawl' for the anthology Modern Italian Stories (1955), and a long poem, 'The Adventure', which appeared in the American review Wake. It has been said, that Arturo's Island was written "under the sign of Visconti". The adolescent narrator, Arturo, looks back at his life on the island of Procida in the Bay of Naples. He becomes aware of his passionate love for his Neapolitan stepmother. Arturo's father, whom Arturo first worships, is cold to his son and his wife, and he turns out to be a victim of his own passion: homosexual affairs, visits to his lover in the island's prison. To face the bitter reality, Arturo leaves his Procida with his friend to enlist.
Morante and Moravia lived together for twenty-five years. During this period Morante had an affair with the film director Luchino Visconti; they fell in love in 1955 during Moravia's trip to America. From the late 1960s, she became increasingly reclusive. In her last years Morante was confined to a wheelchair, after an accident in which she broke her hip. In April 1983, she attempted suicide by swallowing three different kinds of sleeping pills and turning on the gas. She lived for another two and a half years, reading and rereading at the hospital Dante's Inferno. Morante died of cardiac arrest in Rome on November 25, 1985. All the leading newspapers in Italy wrote long obituaries devoted to her and her work.
The plot is not the central element in Morante's work, nor neorealistic preoccupation with leftist politics. Often her subjects are taken from persecutions and injustices, without direct connections to the mainstream historical and social conditions. A great exception is Morante's major work, La storia (History), set in Rome during and after WW II. At the start Morante summarizes the main historical events, and their impact on the everyday life of her characters, distantly or indirectly. The story focuses on the lives of Iduzza, Ida Mancusco, a half-Jewish schoolteacher, her child Useppe, who dies of an epileptic attack, and Nino, her elder son, a fascist who becomes a partisan. Iduzza's husband has died. She experiences all the horrors of war, she is raped by a German soldier on his way to North Africa, and fights for survival with her two sons. Each of the novel's eight sections begins and ends with a brief history of the ongoing war, narrated by the omniscient "I". La storia, as with Morante's other works, reflects a deep understanding of the human psyche and the historical processes experienced by ordinary people, who are trapped by forces beyond their control.
Morante also published essays and short stories. Il mondo salvato dai ragazzini, a collection of poems in various styles, popular songs, and a one-act play, was came out in 1968. Aracoeli (1982), Morante's final novel, was a mixture of private dreams, fantasies, imaginary encounters, and flashbacks, narrated by the guilt-ridden neurotic Emanuele. Aracoeli is his mother, who suddenly undergoes a terrible change-she becomes a nymphomaniac, and dies of a malignant brain tumor, the cause of her wild behavior. The book received mixed reviews, amongst others that of Raymond Rosenthal, who wrote in The New York Times (January 13, 1985) "it would seem that Elsa Morante has turned against her innermost creative self and vision, her carefully nurtured private mythology, her special cult of the young and the innocent. This book reads as if she has surrendered to a blunt cynicism that doesn't work for her

ايوب صابر 01-05-2013 12:22 PM

Elsa Morante was born in Rome in 1912 (some websites say she was born in 1918. They are wrong.) She left home after finishing school and earned a precarious living by teaching and writing for newspapers and magazines. In 1936, through the painter Giuseppe Capogrossi, she met the writer Alberto Moravia. They married in 1941, which was also the year her first book was published. At this time, she started to write her first novel but, because of the War, this was interrupted and it was not completed till after the end of the War and published in 1948. With success for both husband and wife, they moved to a better apartment in Rome, which became a hub for intellectuals in the 1950s. After she published her second novel - L'isola di Arturo (Arturo's Island) - she traveled to the Soviet Union and China and then, in 1959, to the USA, where she met a young painter, Bill Morrow. Morrow died tragically in 1962 and, at around the same time her marriage broke up. Morrow's death had a profound effect on her and started her thinking about death and the dangers facing humanity. Her third novel - La storia (History) - had a huge critical success. In 1982, she fractured her femur and remained bedridden till she died in 1985 of a heart attack
- عاشت مع رجل كانت تظن انه والدها ولكنه لم يكن والدها بل زوج امها الثاني وربما هي ابنة صديق لامها لان ذلك الرجل لم يكن ينجب.
- انكشف سرها بصورة درامية في سن مبكرة وهجرت على اثر ذلك المنزل وهي في سن المراهقة.
- اكثر الاحداث التي اثرت فيها هو موت صديق لها حيث اخذت بعد ذلك تفكر في الموت واثر على الانسانية.

لا يعرف شيء عن ابيها الحقيقية وربما هي يتيمة فعلال، وعلى الاقل هي يتيمة اجتماعيا.

يتيمة اجتماعيا.


ايوب صابر 01-05-2013 01:06 PM

by Knut Hamsun, Norway, (1859-1952)
Hunger is the compelling journey into the mind of a young writer who is driven by starvation to constantly fluctuating extremes of euphoria and despair. It is a study of the psychological hinterlands - the very edges of experience - where few writers have courage to tread.
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Hunger (Norwegian: Sult) is a novel by the Norwegian author Knut Hamsun and was published in 1890. Parts of it had been published anonymously in the Danish magazine Ny Jord in 1888. The novel has been hailed as the literary opening of the 20th century[1] and an outstanding example of modern, psychology-driven literature.[2] Hunger portrays the irrationality of the human mind in an intriguing and sometimes humorous manner.
Written after Hamsun's return from an ill-fated tour of America, Hunger is loosely based on the author's own impoverished life before his breakthrough in 1890. Set in late 19th century Kristiania, the novel recounts the adventures of a starving young man whose sense of reality is giving way to a delusionary existence on the darker side of a modern metropolis. While he vainly tries to maintain an outer shell of respectability, his mental and physical decay are recounted in detail. His ordeal, enhanced by his inability or unwillingness to pursue a professional career, which he deems unfit for someone of his abilities, is pictured in a series of encounters which Hamsun himself described as 'a series of analyses.' In many ways, the protagonist of the novel displays traits reminiscent of Raskolnikov, whose creator, Fyodor Dostoevsky, was one of Hamsun's main influences.[3] The influence of naturalist authors such as Emile Zola is apparent in the novel, as is his rejection of the realist tradition.
Hunger encompasses two of Hamsun's literary and ideological leitmotifs:
  • His insistence that the intricacies of the human mind ought to be the main object of modern literature. Hamsun's own literary program, to describe 'the whisper of the blood and the pleading of the bone marrow', is thoroughly manifest in Hunger.
  • His depreciation of modern, urban civilization. In the famous opening lines of the novel, he ambivalently describes Kristiania as 'this wondrous city that no one leaves before it has made its marks upon him.'
Plot summary

The novel's first-person protagonist, an unnamed vagrant with intellectual leanings, probably in his late twenties, wanders the streets of Norway's capital in pursuit of nourishment. Over four episodes he meets a number of more or less mysterious persons, the most notable being Ylajali, a young woman with whom he engages in a mild degree of physical intimacy. He exhibits a self-created code of chivalry, giving money and clothes to needy children and vagrants, not eating food given to him, and turning himself in for stealing. Essentially self-destructive, he thus falls into traps of his own making, and with a lack of food, warmth and basic comfort, his body turns slowly to ruin. Overwhelmed by hunger, he scrounges for meals, at one point nearly eating his own (rather precious) pencil. His social, physical and mental state are in constant decline. However, he has no antagonistic feelings towards 'society' as such, rather he blames his fate on 'God' or a divine world order. He vows not to succumb to this order and remains 'a foreigner in life', haunted by 'nervousness, by irrational details'. He experiences a major artistic and financial triumph when he sells a text to a newspaper, but despite this he finds writing increasingly difficult. At a point in the story, he asks to spend a night in a prison cell, posing as a well-to-do journalist who has lost the keys to his apartment; in the morning he can't bring himself to reveal his poverty, even to partake in the free breakfast they provide the homeless. Finally as the book comes to close, when his existence is at an absolute ebb, he signs on to the crew of a ship leaving the city.
Translations into English

Hunger has been translated into English three times: in 1899 by Mary Chavelita Dunne (under the alias George Egerton), by Robert Bly in 1967, and in 1996 by Sverre Lyngstad, whose translation is considered definitive. In the latter's Foreword, he shows that in the George Egerton translation the text has been bowdlerized in relation with the narrator's wandering sexual thoughts and actions, and the Robert Bly translation misses the mixing of the present and past tenses of the original, suggestive of a febrile mind, which are replaced by a uniform past tense. This latter also makes confusions in relation to Oslo's geography—streets and places.


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