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أعظم 50 عبقري عبر التاريخ : ما سر هذه العبقرية؟ دراسة بحثية
أعظم 50 عبقري عبر التاريخ حسب موقع : 1) Albert Einstein - 2) Leonardo Da Vinci - 3) Nikola Tesla- 4) Sir Isaac Newton - 5) Stephen Hawking - 6) Michelangelo - 7) Archimedes - 8) Warren Buffet – 9) Swami Vivekananda - 10) Samuel Johnson - 11) Immanuel Kant - Immanuel Kant was an 18th-century philosopher from Russia. He has been considered one of the most influential thinkers of all time in Europe. Kant brought forth a unique theory of perception and thought deeply about life. Many regard Kant as a genius of his time. 12) Aristotle - Aristotle was a Greek philosopher, student of Plato and one who taught Alexander the Great. Aristotle became a great writer and is regarded as one of the most important and influential figures towards shaping Western philosophy. His works were the first to ever study “logic” and he had a profound influence on others during his time. 13) Pablo Picasso - Though Picasso may not have been an amazing scientist, his revolutionary mind forever changed the way people looked at art. He was a master drawer, painter, and sculptor. He founded “cubism” – an art style which became a huge movement in the 20th century. Pablo Picasso’s unique perception, which he expressed through his art, caused many people to view reality from a different perspective. 14) Niles Bohr - Niels Bohr was a phenomenal physicist and a highly advanced thinker. He invented the Bohr Model which is regarded as a huge contribution to atomic physics. Bohr was heavily involved with post World War II scientific issues and carried a great head on his shoulders. 15) Thomas Jefferson - Thomas Jefferson was a very brilliant individual. He was the 3rd president of the United States, wrote The Declaration Of Independence, and was the most influential Founding Father for the U.S. He influenced the republican party and was a horticulturist, statesman, architect, author and inventor. Jefferson was the founder of the University of Virginia and understood that slavery was unethical in a time when most everyone else thought it was proper. Thomas Jefferson was definitely had an exceptional brain. 16) Plato - Plato was a Greek philosopher that was taught by Socrates, but taught Aristotle. Along with Socrates and Aristotle, Plato helped lay the groundwork for Western philosophy. He was known to be a mathematician, great writer, and founded “the Academy” or “institute of higher education and learning,” in Athens. His works in philosophy, logic, and mathematics, were studied and used by many teachers after his time. Not only was Plato a revolutionary thinker, he was a genius of his time. 17) Winston Churchill – Winston Churchill was a rightfully famous British politician during World War II. He is well-known for his abilities as a great leader, speaker, officer in the British Army, a historical writer, and an artist. Churchill became a hero of his time and is considered one of the most intelligent men of his time. 18) Benjamin Franklin - Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the U.S., an author, and a printer. He was also a great politician, inventor, and scientist. Benjamin Franklin’s scientific contributions have shaped physics and the field of electricity. He invented the lightning rod, bifocals, the Franklin stove, the odometer, and the glass harmonica. Franklin created the first public lending library in the United States and first fire department in the city of Pennsylvania. Ben Franklin was a true genius of his time. 19) Thomas Edison – Thomas Edison was a great inventor and businessman who created many appliances that have had profound influence on life around the world. A couple of his inventions are: the phonograph and a long lasting light bulb. Jefferson was also one of the first inventors to apply the idea of “mass production” to the invention process. Many give Jefferson credit with creating the first ever industrial research lab. He is considered one of the most gifted inventors ever and holds over 1,000 United States patents. Edison truly added his touch of genius to the scientific community. 20) Daniel Tammet - Daniel Tammet is a high-functioning autistic savant. He has been gifted with a knack for mathematics, language learning, and above average memorization skills. He was featured on a discovery channel special that tested his abilities and showed his ability to learn arguably the toughest language, Icelandic, in less than 7 days to appear in an interview. Daniel has an incredible brain and was gifted with an above-average intellect. 21) William Shakespeare - William Shakespeare was a poet, playwright, and has been hailed “the greatest writer” in the English language and the worlds best dramatist. He has been deemed the national poet of England and his works include: nearly 40 plays, around 150 sonnets, and 2 long poems. Shakespeare’s plays have been translated into every language, and are performed more often than any other playwright. Shakespeare shed his genius-like thoughts through his complex storytelling 22) Kim Peek - Though Kim Peek is a savant, he has some exceptional brain abilities. He is lacking a functional corpus callosum (which makes it impossible for his right and left brain hemispheres to exchange information) and has a damaged cerebellum. Without a corpus callosum, some develop above average memory abilities. In Kim Peek’s case, he can read a new book in about 1 hour and manages to retain over 98% of the information within the book! Impressive. 23) Ludwig van Beethoven - Beethoven was a German pianist and legendary musician. He was very influential in Western classical music and is thought of as the best composer of all time. Though Beethoven’s hearing began to cease in his early twenties, he was still able to create classical masterpieces. He was able to conduct, compose, and perform music even after he was completely deaf! Beethoven blessed the world with his musical genius and brilliant mind. 24) Srinivasa Ramanujan - Srinivasa was an Indian mathematician who was able to make huge contributions in the area of mathematical analysis and number theory. Srinivasa demonstrated an uncanny, natural ability to master mathematics. He had a complete math book mastered by 13, and even discovered theorems of his own. He won many awards by showing others his superior mathematical ability at his school. By age 17, this mathematical prodigy was doing his own research with mathematics and numbers. He compiled nearly 4,000 equations and identities in his short lifetime. 25) Johann Sebastian Bach - Bach was an exceptional composer and organist. He specialized in choir, orchestra, and solo instruments. He was able to enrich the German composing style with a full harmonic scale and was able to adapt rhythms from Italy and France. Though his music began early in the 19th century, he is now noted as one of the greatest composers in the Western tradition. Bach was yet another musical genius 26) Wolfgang Amedeus Mozart - Mozart was a very influential composer during the classical era. He was able to create over 600 compositions that were widely accepted and acknowledged. His music specialties included symphony, chamber music, piano, opera, and choral music. Mozart is among the most popular of classical composers, and many of his works are still included in concerts today. Mozart clearly demonstrated his musical proficiency and level of genius. 27) Sir Francis Drake - Drake was a famous traveler, navigator, and politician from England. He managed to circumnavigate the world in 1577 and has been proclaimed a legend in England. Drake was an exceptionally smart individual and had an estimated I.Q. of 130. Sir Francis was a powerful man that happened to have an incredibly powerful brain. 28) George Berkeley - George Berkeley was an Irish philosopher and developed a famous theory of “immaterialism.” Berkeley also published a book called “The Analyst” that would critique calculus and influence common day mathematics. University Of California, Berkeley was named after George due to his intelligence and philosophical insight. 29) Ludwig Wittgenstein - Ludwig was an Austrian philosopher that developed theories involving logic. He contributed to the philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of language, and philosophy of the mind. He has had a huge influence on philosophy and is widely accepted as one of the twentieth century’s best philosophers. Wittengenstein published 2 books and both were highly influential in philosophy. 30) Socrates - Socrates is regarded as one of the best ancient greek philosophers of all time. As teacher of Plato, he has been associated with highly advanced thinking during his time. His work continues to form much of the foundation for the study of philosophy today. Socrates has made important contributions to the study of logic and writings, and has provided a lot of groundwork that much of the Western civilization has followed. 31) Linus Pauling – Linus Pauling was a peace activist, scientist, author, and teacher. Pauling is regarded as one of the most influential chemists in history and was one of the most important scientists of all time. He was one of the pioneers to work in the study of molecular biology and quantum chemistry. He has been awarded more than 1 Nobel Prize and is one of only 2 individuals to receive them for different fields. 32) Christopher Michael Langan - Christopher Langan is an American with an IQ was reported by “20/20″ and other media sources to have been measured at nearly 200. Though he used to work as a bouncer in Long Island, he rose to fame as “the smartest man in America” in 1999. Langan has developed “a theory of the relationship between mind and reality” which he calls the “Cognitive-Theoretic Model of the Universe and is still alive today. This man has one of the highest I.Q.’s ever on Earth. 33) Michael Faraday - Michael Faraday was a phenomenal chemist and physicist who contributed to the fields of electrochemistry and electromagnetics. His inventions of electromagnetic devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became available for use in technology. Faraday was also the very first Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain. 34) Blaise Pascal – Blaise Pascal was a French physicist, religious philosopher, and great mathematician. Pascal was a child prodigy and was taught a lot by his father. Pascal’s contributions included: mechanical calculators, concepts of pressure, concepts of vacuum, and the study of fluids. In literature, Pascal is regarded as one of the most important authors of the French classical period. His name (Pascal) has been given to the SI unit of pressure, some programming language, and Pascal’s law. 35) Galileo Galilei - Galileo Galilei was a legendery astronomer, physicist, mathematician, and philosopher. He played a major role in the scientific revolution. His achievements include the first studies of uniformly accelerated motion, improvements to the telescope, and astronomical observations. Galileo has been called the “father of modern observational astronomy”, the “father of modern physics”, the “father of science”, and “the Father of Modern Science.” With his discoveries and studies, Galileo was able to display his brilliance. 36) Martin Luther - Martin Luther was a German professor, a monk, theologian, and church reformer. Luther’s theology challenged the authority of the church by stating that the Bible is the only infallible source of religious authority and that all baptized Christians are a priesthood of believers.According to Luther, salvation was attainable only by true repentance and faith in “Jesus as the Messiah.” His revolutionary ideas inspired the Protestant Reformation and changed the philosophy of Western civilization. 37) Robert Boyle - Was a natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, inventor, and early gentleman scientist. Boyle was largely known for his works in physics and chemistry. He is best known for the creation of “Boyle’s law.” Boyle is recognized today as one of the first modern chemists and one of the founding fathers of chemistry. One of his works, “The Sceptical Chymist” is viewed as a legendary book in the field of chemistry. 38) John Locke - John Locke was a phenomenal English philosopher. Locke’s ideas had a huge influence on the development of political philosophy and he is considered one of the most influential thinkers during the Enlightenment and one of the biggest contibutors to liberal theory. Locke’s influence is reflected in the American Declaration of Independence. Locke was the first philosopher to define the self through a continuity of “consciousness.” John Locke was an independent thinker and among the greatest philosophers. 39) Charles Darwin - Charles Darwin was a naturalist and geologist who proposed that all species of life have evolved over time.The fact that evolution occurs became accepted by the scientific community and the general public. Darwin’s scientific discovery remains the foundation of biology. Darwin is yet another great thinker of his time and his theories are still studied and discussed today. 40) Johannes Kepler - Kepler was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer. He was a huge influence towards the astronomical revolution of the 17th century. Kepler is best known for his laws of planetary motion.His laws also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton’s theory of universal gravitation. Kepler is regarded as a man with revolutionary thoughts towards astronomy. 41) Napoleon Bonaparte - Napoleon Bonaparte was a political and French military leader who had a huge influence on European history. Napoleon was a general during the French Revolution, Emperor of France, King of Italy, and Mediator of the Swiss. Napoleon was a very intelligent military leader who used innovative tactics and strategy to help him win many battles. 42) Garry Kasparov – Garry Kasparov was a former World Chess Champion, writer, and political activist. Kasparov was a candidate for the Russian presidential race of 2008.Kasparov holds the all-time highest chess rating of 2851 and records for consecutive tournament victories 43) John Stuart Mill – John Stuart Mill largely influenced British thought and politics in the 19th century. His large number of works include: texts in logic, economics, social and political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, and religion. John Stuart Mill is recognized as one of the most intelligent men of his time and is regarded as one of the smartest men of all time 44) Rene Descartes - Rene Descartes was an influential philosopher, mathematician, scientist, and writer. Descartes has been given the title “Father of Modern Philosophy,” and has contributed a lot to Western philosophy. His writings are still being studied today and he has had a huge influence in mathematics. Rene was a key figure in the scientific revolution and was able to share his incredible insights with others. 45) George Washington - George Washington was the first President of the United States, and lead the U.S. continental Army to defeat the British in the Revolutionary war. Washington is viewed as a symbol of the United States and republican party. He has been consistently ranked by citizens as one of the greatest presidents of the United States. 46) Miguel de Cervantes – Miguel de Cervantes was a Spanish novelist, poet, painter and playwright. He is one of the most influential and important people in literature and the leader of culture in 16th century Spain. Cervantes’ novel “Don Quixote” is considered a classic of Western literature and has been ranked among the best novels ever written. Miguel de Cervantes’ work is considered among the most important in all of literature! 47) Francois Marie-Arouet – Commonly known by the pen-name Voltaire, Francois Marie-Arouet was a French Enlightenment writer, essayist, and philosopher. He was known for his wit, defense of civil liberties, and philosophy. He was an outspoken supporter of social reform and was one of several Enlightenment figures whose works and ideas influenced important thinkers of both the American and French Revolutions. 48) Baruch de Spinoza - Baruch de Spinoza was a Dutch philosopher that was very proficient in science. Most of Spinoza’s work was not recognized until after his death. Today, Spinoza is regarded as one of the greatest 17th century philosophers. His work in philosophy laid the foundation for the 18th century Enlightenment. 49) Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - Leibniz was a German polymath who is regarded as one of the greatest philosophers. Liebniz invented calculus, and his version is widely used. He also discovered the binary system, the structure of modern computer architectures.He was, along with Rene Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, one of the 3 greatest 17th century philosophers.He also made major contributions to physics, technology, and made anticipations that surfaced much later in biology, medicine, geology, probability theory, psychology, and linguistics. Liebniz also wrote about politics, law, ethics, theology, and history. 50) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer whose works span the fields of poetry, drama, literature, theology, humanism, and science.Goethe was a key figure in German literature and the movement of Weimar Classicism in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.Goethe is the inventor of the concept of “world literature,” having taken great interest in the literatures of England, France, Italy, classical Greece, Persia, and Arabic literature. His influence on German philosophy is unparalleled and his influence has spread across Europe. Many of his works were a primary source of inspiration in music, drama, and poetry. Goethe is considered one of the most important thinkers in the Western culture and generally recognized as the most important writer in the German language. http://4mind4life.com/blog/2008/03/30/list-of-geniuses-top-50-influential-minds/ Top 50 Geniuses Of All Time – [In A Random Order] هل هناك عوامل تصنع العبقرية ؟ تعالوا نتعرف ؟؟؟؟!!!!!!!!!!!!!! |
البرت اينشتاين 1)Albert Einstein - Albert Einstein is a name that comes to mind first when thinking of geniuses. Einstein’s brain was found to be deficient in certain parts, but extraordinarily powerful in others. Another trait of Albert’s brain was the fact that he had a much larger corpus callosum than the average man. The corpus callosum connects the right and left hemispheres and allows them to successfully transfer information back and forth (communicate with one another). Einstein has received the Nobel Prize in physics, was named “Person Of The Century” by Time Magazine, and has contributed phenomenal theories to the world of science (i.e. theory of relativity, unique field theory, etc). == Albert Einstein ( German: 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the general theory of relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics[2][3] and the most influential physicist of the 20th century. While best known for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2 (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"),[4] he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect" The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory within physics. Early life and education Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire on 14 March 1879. His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (née Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current. The Einsteins were non-observant Jews. Albert attended a Catholic elementary school from the age of five for three years. Later, at the age of eight, Einstein was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left Germany seven years later. Although it has been thought that Einstein had early speech difficulties, this is disputed by the Albert Einstein Archives, and he excelled at the first school that he attended. He was right handed; there appears to be no evidence for the widespread popular belief that he was left handed. His father once showed him a pocket compass; Einstein realized that there must be something causing the needle to move, despite the apparent "empty space". As he grew, Einstein built models and mechanical devices for fun and began to show a talent for mathematics. When Einstein was ten years old, Max Talmud (later changed to Max Talmey), a poor Jewish medical student from Poland, was introduced to the Einstein family by his brother, and during weekly visits over the next five years, he gave the boy popular books on science, mathematical texts and philosophical writings. These included Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's Elements (which Einstein called the "holy little geometry book"). In 1894, his father's company failed: direct current (DC) lost the War of Currents to alternating current (AC). In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then, a few months later, to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict rote learning. At the end of December 1894, he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note. It was during his time in Italy that he wrote a short essay with the title "On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field." In late summer 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in Zurich (later the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule). He failed to reach the required standard in several subjects, but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics. On the advice of the Principal of the Polytechnic, he attended the Aargau Cantonal School in Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895-96 to complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister Maja later married the Wintelers' son, Paul. In January 1896, with his father's approval, he renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service. In September 1896, he passed the Swiss Matura with mostly good grades (including a top grade of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, on a scale of 1-6), and, though only seventeen, enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the ETH Zurich. Marie Winteler moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post. Einstein's future wife, Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the Polytechnic that same year, the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein and Marić's friendship developed into romance, and they read books together on extra-curricular physics in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900, Einstein was awarded the Zurich Polytechnic teaching diploma, but Marić failed the examination with a poor grade in the mathematics component, theory of functions. There have been claims that Marić collaborated with Einstein on his celebrated 1905 papers, but historians of physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions. الوالد والوالدة: The factory of Hermann and Jakob was moved to Pavia, Italy in 1894. Hermann, Maria and Pauline moved to Milan in the same year and one year later moved to Pavia. Albert stayed with relatives in Munich to continue his education there. The separation from her son was certainly difficult for Pauline. Due to poor business, the brothers had to abandon their factory in 1896. Though Hermann had lost most of their money, he founded (without his brother) another electrical engineering company in Milan. This time business was better. But Hermann's health had gone downhill, and he died of heart failure in Milan on October 10, 1902. - البرت انيشتن انفصل عن والديه عام 1895 أي عندما كان عمره ( 16سنه) . - تعرض والده في عام 1894 وعمر البرت ( 15 سنة) للخسارة وأقفلت. - تنازل عن جنسيته الألمانية عام 1896 لتجنب التجنيد الإجباري وأصبح بلا هوية. - تدهورت صحة والده ومات بفشل قلبه عام 1902 اين بينما كان عمر البرت 23 سنة. يتيم اجتماعي ومات أبوه وعمره 23 سنة. |
1) Leonardo Da Vinci - Leonardo Da Vinci is considered one of the best painters of all time and possibly the most multi-talented man to have ever lived! Two of his works include: The Last Super & The Mona Lisa. Da Vinci was truly ahead of his time with ideas such as: a helicopter, a tank, solar power, a calculator, and a theory of plate tectonics. Leonardo was a unique individual who exercised the curiosity of his powerful brain. == Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (Italian pronunciation: [leoˈnardo da ˈvintʃi] pronunciation (help·info); April 15, 1452 – May 2, 1519, Old Style) was an Italian Renaissancepolymath: painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer. His genius, perhaps more than that of any other figure, epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. Leonardo has often been described as the archetype of the Renaissance Man, a man of "unquenchable curiosity" and "feverishly inventive imagination".[1] He is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived.[2] According to art historian Helen Gardner, the scope and depth of his interests were without precedent and "his mind and personality seem to us superhuman, the man himself mysterious and remote".[1] Marco Rosci states that while there is much speculation about Leonardo, his vision of the world is essentially logical rather than mysterious, and that the empirical methods he employed were unusual for his time.[3] Born out of wedlock to a notary, Piero da Vinci, and a peasant woman, Caterina, at Vinci in the region of Florence, Leonardo was educated in the studio of the renowned Florentine painter, Verrocchio. Much of his earlier working life was spent in the service of Ludovico il Moro in Milan. He later worked in Rome, Bologna and Venice, and he spent his last years in France at the home awarded him by Francis I. Leonardo was born on April 15, 1452 (Old Style), "at the third hour of the night" in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, in the lower valley of the Arno River in the territory of the Medici-ruled Republic of Florence. He was the out-of-wedlock son of the wealthy Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci, a Florentine legal notary, and Caterina, a peasant. Leonardo had no surname in the modern sense, “da Vinci” simply meaning “of Vinci”: his full birth name was "Lionardo di ser Piero da Vinci", meaning "Leonardo, (son) of (Mes)ser Piero from Vinci". The inclusion of the title "ser" indicated that Leonardo's father was a gentleman. Little is known about Leonardo's early life. He spent his first five years in the hamlet of Anchiano in the home of his mother, then from 1457 he lived in the household of his father, grandparents and uncle, Francesco, in the small town of Vinci. His father had married a sixteen-year-old girl named Albiera, who loved Leonardo but died young. When Leonardo was sixteen his father married again, to twenty-year-old Francesca Lanfredini. It was not until his third and fourth marriages that Ser Piero produced legitimate heirs. Leonardo received an informal education in Latin, geometry and mathematics. In later life, Leonardo recorded only two childhood incidents. One, which he regarded as an omen, was when a kite dropped from the sky and hovered over his cradle, its tail feathers brushing his face. The second occurred while exploring in the mountains. He discovered a cave and was both terrified that some great monster might lurk there and driven by curiosity to find out what was inside. Leonardo's early life has been the subject of historical conjecture. Vasari, the 16th-century biographer of Renaissance painters tells of how a local peasant made himself a round shield and requested that Ser Piero have it painted for him. Leonardo responded with a painting of a monster spitting fire which was so terrifying that Ser Piero sold it to a Florentine art dealer, who sold it to the Duke of Milan. Meanwhile, having made a profit, Ser Piero bought a shield decorated with a heart pierced by an arrow, which he gave to the peasant. Verrocchio's workshop, 1466–76 In 1466, at the age of fourteen, Leonardo was apprenticed to the artist Andrea di Cione, known as Verrocchio, whose workshop was "one of the finest in Florence". Other famous painters apprenticed or associated with the workshop include Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli, and Lorenzo di Credi. Leonardo would have been exposed to both theoretical training and a vast range of technical skills including drafting, chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, plaster casting, leather working, mechanics and carpentry as well as the artistic skills of drawing, painting, sculpting and modelling[ Much of the painted production of Verrocchio's workshop was done by his employees. According to Vasari, Leonardo collaborated with Verrocchio on his The Baptism of Christ, painting the young angel holding Jesus' robe in a manner that was so far superior to his master's that Verrocchio put down his brush and never painted again.[20] On close examination, the painting reveals much that has been painted or touched up over the tempera using the new technique of oil paint, with the landscape, the rocks that can be seen through the brown mountain stream and much of the figure of Jesus bearing witness to the hand of Leonardo.[21] Leonardo may have been the model for two works by Verrocchio: the bronze statue of David in the Bargello and the Archangel Raphael in Tobias and the Angel.[10] By 1472, at the age of twenty, Leonardo qualified as a master in the Guild of St Luke, the guild of artists and doctors of medicine, but even after his father set him up in his own workshop, his attachment to Verrocchio was such that he continued to collaborate with him. [Leonardo's earliest known dated work is a drawing in pen and ink of the Arno valley, drawn on August 5, 1473 == Born out of wedlock, the love child of a respected notary and a young peasant woman, Leonardo da Vinci (b. April 15, 1452, in Vinci, Italy) was raised by his father, Ser Piero, and his stepmothers. - ابن غير شرعي لرجل ثري وام تعمل في الحقول. - عاش عند والدتة حتى نس الخامسة. - انتقل بعدها للعيش عند والده وجده وعمه ( ويبدو انه انفصل عندها عن أمه ولا يعرف مصير ها بعد ذلك السن ). - واضح انه اتفصل عن والدته وعاش مع والده و زوجاته بعد انفصاله عن امه. ابن غير شرعي عاش في منزل والدته أول خمس سنوات حتى انه لا يحمل اسم وسط بل يشار اليه على انه ابن الرجل الثري من فينا ، ثم عاش لدى عائلة والده المزواج حيث ومات إحدى زوجاته وعمر وكانت قد احبت ليوناردو وهو في سن الخامسة عشره. ولا يعرف شيء عن والدته بعد تلك السنوات الخمس. ابن غير شرعي ويتيم اجتماعي. |
Nikola Tesla - Tesla was a renowned physicist, inventor, and engineer. He has made phenomenal contributions to science and has been classified as the “world’s greatest electrical engineer.” Nikola engaged in studying many works, memorizing complete books, and supposedly had a photographic memory. Tesla had above average brain power and was an advanced thinker when compared to others of his time. == ولد نيكولا تسلا لاب وام صربيين في قرية سميلجان, الإمبراطورية النمساوية بالقرب من مدينة جوسبيك, في منطقة تابعة لكرواتيا في الوقت الحاضر. والده ميلوتين تسلا, كاهن بالكنيسة الاورثوذوكسية الصربية. والدته ديوكا تسلا, كان والدها كاهن أرثوذكسي أيضا. كانت والدته تتقن صناعة الادوات المنزلية وتحفظ الكثير من القصائد الملحمية الصربية بالرغم من انها لم تتعلم القراءة. اشار كاتب السير الذاتية جون أونيل إلى ان والديه اتوا من غرب صربيا بالقرب من مونتينيجرو. هو رابع خمسة أولاد, له اخ واحد أكبر منه(دانيلو, توفي عندما كان نيكولا بعمر الخامسة) وثلاث اخوات(ميلكا, انجلينا, ومارسيا). انتقلت عائلته لمدينة جوسبيك عام 1862. مما يدلل وبوضوح على عبقريته اختراعه للملف الكهربي وعمره 16 عام!!! وهو أول من حاول استخدام الكهرباء في التصوير إلا أن المنية عاجلته في فندق نيويورك، في السابع من يناير 1943... وقد تأثر بأعمال مكتشف الأشعة السينية "ويلهلم رونتجن" وقد حاول كذلك تصوير حركة التيارات الكهربية في الجسم البشري Nikola Tesla (Serbian Cyrillic: Никола Тесла; 10 July 1856 – 7 January 1943) was a Serbian-American[1][2][3] inventor, physicist, mechanical engineer, electrical engineer, and futurist. He is best known for his contributions to the modern alternating current (AC) electrical supply system. Tesla's patents and theoretical work helped form the basis of wireless communication and radio. His many revolutionary developments in the field of electromagnetism were based on Michael Faraday's theories of electromagnetic technology.[4] Born to Serbian parents in the village of Smiljan (now in Croatia), Tesla was a subject of the Austrian Empire by birth and later became an American citizen.[5] Because of his 1894 demonstration of short range wireless communication through radio[6] and his contributions to the development of alternating current, the successful system in the "War of Currents", he is widely respected as one of the greatest electrical engineers who worked in America.[7] He pioneered modern electrical engineering and made numerous groundbreaking discoveries. In the United States during this time Tesla's fame rivaled that of any other inventor or scientist in history or popular culture.[8] Tesla demonstrated wireless energy transfer to power electronic devices in 1891[9] and aspired to achieve intercontinental wireless transmission of industrial power in his unfinished Wardenclyffe Tower project.[10] In the 1930s, towards the end of his life, Tesla became reclusive, living alone in a New York City hotel room and only appearing occasionally to make unusual statements to the press. Because of his pronouncements and the nature of his work over the years, Tesla gained a reputation in popular culture as the archetypal "mad scientist".[13][14] He died penniless and in debt on 7 January 1943. His work fell into relative obscurity after his death, but in 1960, in honor of Nikola Tesla the General Conference on Weights and Measures for the International System of Units dedicated the term "tesla" to the SI unit measure for magnetic field strength, and since the 1990s, Tesla's reputation has experienced a comeback in popular culture.[18][19] In 2005, he was listed amongst the top 100 nominees in the TV show "The Greatest American", an open access popularity poll conducted by AOL and The Discovery Channel.[20] Early years (1856-1885) Nikola Tesla was born on 10 July (O.S. 28 June) 1856 to Serbian parents in the village of Smiljan, Austrian Empire (modern-day Croatia). His father, Milutin Tesla, was a priest of the Serbian Orthodox Church.[21] Tesla's mother, Đuka Tesla (née Mandić), whose father was also a Serbian Orthodox priest, had a talent for making home craft tools and for memorizing many Serbian epic poems, even though she had never learned how to read. Tesla's progenitors were from Western Serbia, near Montenegro. Nikola was the fourth of five children, having an older brother, Dane, who was killed in a horse-riding accident when Nikola was five, and three sisters, Milka, Angelina and Marica. Some accounts claim that Tesla had caused the accident by frightening the horse. In 1861, Nikola attended the Krajina "Lower" or "Primary" School in Smiljan, Austrian Empire, where he studied German, arithmetic, and religion. In 1862, the Tesla family moved to Gospić, Austrian Empire, where Nikola's father worked as a pastor. Nikola completed Krajina "Lower" or "Primary" School, followed by the "Lower Real Gymnasium" or "Normal School". In 1870, Tesla moved to Karlovac, Croatia to attend school at Higher Real Gymnasium, where his math teacher, Martin Sekulić, profoundly influenced him.He was able to perform integral calculus in his head, leading his teachers to think that he was cheating. He finished a four-year term in just three years, graduating in 1873. In 1873, after graduating from Higher Real Gymnasium, Tesla returned to his hometown, Smiljan, Croatia. Shortly after arriving, Tesla contracted cholera; he was bedridden for nine months and was near death multiple times. Nikola's father, in a moment of despair, agreed to send him to the best engineering school if he recovered from the illnes[ (his father originally wanted him to enter the priesthood). In 1874, Tesla evaded a draft by escaping to Tomingaj, near Gračac. During this period of time, he explored the mountains in hunter's garb. Tesla claimed that this contact with nature made him stronger, both physically and mentally. He read many books while in Tomingaj, later claiming that Mark Twain's works helped him to miraculously recover from the illness. In 1875, Tesla enrolled at the Austrian Polytechnic in Graz, Austria on a Military Border scholarship. During his first year Tesla never missed a lecture, earned the highest grades possible, passed nine exams[34][39] (nearly twice as many required[40]), started a Serbian culture club, and even received a letter of commendation from the dean of the technical faculty to his father, which stated, "Your son is a star of first rank." Tesla claimed that he worked from 3 A.M. to 11 P.M., no Sundays or holidays excepted. He was "mortified when [his] father made light of [those] hard won honors." After his father's death in 1879, Tesla found a package of letters from his professors to his father, warning that unless he were removed from the school, Tesla would be killed through overwork. During his second year, Tesla came into conflict with Professor Poeschl over the Gramme dynamo when Tesla suggested that commutators weren't necessary. At the end of his second year, Tesla lost his scholarship and became addicted to gambling. During his third year, Tesla gambled away his allowance and his tuition money, later gambling back his initial losses and returning the balance to his family. Tesla claimed that he "conquered [his] passion then and there", but he was known to play billiards in the U.S.. When exam time came, Tesla was unprepared and asked for an extension to study, but was denied. He never graduated from the university and did not receive grades for the last semester. In December 1878, Tesla left Graz and severed all relations with his family. He didn't want his parents to know that he had dropped out.[36] His friends thought that he had drowned in the Mur River.[42] Tesla went to Marburg (now in Slovenia), where he was employed as a draftsman for 60 florins a month. He spent his spare time playing cards with the local man on the streets. In March 1879, Milutin Tesla came to Maribor to plead to his son to return home, but Nikola refused. Nikola suffered a nervous breakdown during this time. On 24 March 1879, Tesla was returned to Gospić under police guard for not having a residence permit. On 17 April 1879, Milutin Tesla died at the age of 60 after contracting an unspecified illness. During this year, Nikola taught a large class of students in his old school, Higher Real Gymnasium, in Gospić.[ In January 1880, two of Tesla's uncles put together enough money to help him flee] to Prague. Unfortunately, Tesla could not attend Charles-Ferdinand University because he arrived too tardy to enroll; never took Greek, which was required; and was illiterate in Czech, which was also required. Tesla did, however, attend lectures at the university as an auditor but did not receive grades for the courses. In 1881, Tesla moved to Budapest to work under Ferenc Puskas at a telegraph company, the Budapest Telephone Exchange. Upon arrival, Tesla realized that the company, then under construction, was not functional, so he worked as a draftsman in the Central Telegraph Office, instead. Within a few months, the Budapest Telephone Exchange became functional and Tesla was allocated the chief electrician position.[48] During his employment, Tesla made many improvements to the Central Station equipment and claimed to have perfected a telephone repeater or amplifier, which was never patented or publicly described - ترتيبه الرابع بين اخوته وله اخ اكبر منه قتل عندما سقط عن ظهر حصان وعمر نقولا 5 سنوات ويقال انه تسبب في قتله. - في عام 1870 ( وعمره 16 سنه ) أصيب بالكوليرا وظل مريض لمدة تسع اشهر وكاد ان يموت عدة مرات. - مات ابوه عام 1879 ( وعمره 23 سنة ) - نظرا لطرده من الجامعة قطع علاقاته مع عائلة في عام 1878 . واعتقد اصدقاؤه انه غرق في النهر. - اصيب بانهيار عصبي عام 1879 بعد فشل والده في اعادت الى البيت. اختبر موت اخاه وهو ابن خمس سنوات كما انه كان على مشارف الموت اكثر من مرة. لا يعرف متى ماتت والدته لكن والده مات وعمره 23 سنة وأصيب في تلك السنة بانهيار عصبي. طفولة كارثية بطعم الموت. = |
Sir Isaac Newton - Sir Isaac Newton was an astronomer astronomer, physicist, inventor, mathematician, and philosopher. In a 2005 poll, Newton was named more influential than Einstein in science. He has developed laws of motion, principles of momentum, and invented the reflecting telescope. Newton has had tons of great scientific achievements. His diverse list of scientific and mathematic accomplishments demonstrate the incredible ability of his brain. == إسحاق نيوتنفيزيائي ، ورياضي، وكيميائي، وفيلسوف إنجليزي. ويعتبر نيوتن من أعظم العقول التي مرت على البشرية. عاش ما بين 25 ديسمبر 1643 إلى 31 مارس 1727 بالتقويم الغريغوري (الميلادي المعروف حاليا) لقد وضّح نيوتن قوانين الكون بالنسبة للجاذبية والحركة بوضع القوانين الثلاث للحركة. كما يعتبر مؤسس العلوم البصرية الحديثة (Modern Study of Optics) والتي تفسر حركة الضوء وتمكن من إختراع التلسكوب العاكس ليتغلب على مشكلة الألوان التي تظهر في التلسكوبات المعتمدة على الضوء المنكسر. وقد ابتكر وأبدع في علم الحساب الرياضي (Calculus) ويشاركه الأسبقية في ذلك العالم الألماني ليبينز (Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz) والذي عمل مستقلا عن نيوتن. لقد أخذ نيوتن الحقائق المعروفة، ووضعها على شكل نظريات رياضية تشرح هذه الحقائق. ثم استخدم هذه النظريات الرياضية لتوقع حركة الأجسام من حوله. وبعدها قارن النتائج الواقعة بتوقعاته المسبقة ليستنتج بعد ذلك نظريات علمية. وقد شرحت نظريات نيوتن العلمية وقوانينه كثيرا من الظواهر وأرست الدعامة القائلة بأن العلم بإمكانه تفسير الظواهر الأخرى ايضا. الإنجازات الإضافيّة نيوتن كان الأول في برهنة أن الحركة الأرضية وحركة الأجرام السماوية تُحكم من قبل القوانين الطبيعية ويرتبط إسم العالم نيوتن بالثورة العلمية. يرجع الفضل لنيوتن بتزويد القوانين الرياضية لأثبات نظريات كيبلر والمتعلقة بحركة الكواكب. قام بالتوسع في إثباتاته وتطرّق إلى ان مدار المذنّبات ليس بالضرورة بيضاوي! ويرجع الفضل لنيوتن في إثباته ان الضوء الأبيض هو مزيج من أضواء متعددة وأن الضوء يتكون من جسيمات صغيرة. == ولد "إسحاق نيوتن" في 4 يناير عام 1643 (OS: 25 ديسمبر 1643) لم تكن إنجلترا وقت مولد "نيوتن" قد اتخذت التقويم الميلادي تقويمًا لها ولذلك فإن تاريخ ميلاده كان مسجلاً بعيد الميلاد 25 ديسمبر 1642. ولد "نيوتن" بعد وفاة والده بثلاثة أشهر. وكان "نيوتن" صغير الحجم حيث أنه ولد مبتسراً (خداج). وقد قالت والدته Hannah Ayscough على ما يدل على أنه كان صغير الحجم للغاية. عندما بلغ "نيوتن" من العمر ثلاثة أعوام، تزوجت والدته مرةً أخرى وذهبت لتعيش مع زوجها الجديد تاركةً ابنها برعاية والدتها Margery Ayscough. وقد كان "نيوتن" الصغير يكره زوج والدته وكان يحمل في قلبه بعض العداوة لوالدته بسبب زواجها من هذا الشخص الأمر الذي أظهره كتابه في قائمة الخطايا التي اُرتكبت حتى سن 19: "مهددًا والداتي وزوجها بحرقهما وحرق المنزل وهم به. == 'السّير إسحاق نيوتن (بالإنجليزية: Sir Isaac Newton) عالم إنجليزي، أشهر عالم فيزيائي، وفيلسوف ومن أعظم علماء القرن الثامن عشر في الرياضيات و الفيزياء. عاش ما بين 25 ديسمبر 1642 - 20 مارس 1727, بالتقويم القيصري آنذاك أو 4 يناير 1643 - 31 مارس 1727 بالتقويم الغريغوري. قدّم نيوتن ورقة علمية وصف فيها قوة الجاذبية الكونية ومهد الطريق لعلم الميكانيكا الكلاسيكية عن طريق قوانين الحركة. يشارك نيوتن لايبتنز الحق في تطوير علم الحساب التفاضلي والمتفرع من الرياضيات. وغيره من القوانين الفلكية و أساليب حلول مسائلها مما خلد ذكره في تاريخ النهضة العلمية. الإنجازات الإضافية كان نيوتن الأول في برهنة أن الحركة الأرضية وحركة الأجرام السماوية تُحكم من قبل قوانين لهذا كان من الطبيعي أن يرتبط اسم العالم نيوتن بالثورة العلمية. ويرجع الفضل لنيوتن بتزويد القوانين الرياضية لأثبات نظريات كيبلر والمتعلقة بحركة الكواكب. وقام بالتوسع في إثباتاته وتطرّق إلى أن مدار المذنّبات ليس بالضرورة بيضاويا! ويقال أنه كان مجنون ويرجع الفضل لنيوتن في إثباته أن الضوء الأبيض هو مزيج من أضواء متعددة وأن الضوء يتكون من جسيمات صغيرة. كما أنه صنع أول مقراب عاكس عام 1688(وهو نفس المقراب الذي يستخدم حتى الآن في المراصد الفلكية). == Isaac Newton was born on what is retroactively considered 4 January 1643 [OS: 25 December 1642][1] at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. At the time of Newton's birth, England had not adopted the Gregorian calendar and therefore his date of birth was recorded as Christmas Day, 25 December 1642. Newton was born three months after the death of his father, a prosperous farmer also named Isaac Newton. Born prematurely, he was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug (≈ 1.1 litres). When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabus Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough. The young Isaac disliked his stepfather and maintained some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19: "Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them."[10] Although it was claimed that he was once engaged,[11] Newton never married. - يتيم الاب قبل 3 اشهر من ولادته. - ولد غير نكتمل ووزنه قليل. - امه تزوجت عندما كان في الثالثه وتركته عند جدته لامه. - كره امه وزوج لانها تزوجت وتركته وكره زوج امه وفكر في حرقهما . يتيم الاب قبل الولادة. |
Stephen Hawking - Hawking is known best for his theories of black holes, cosmology, and quantum gravity. He has also written several bestselling books such as: “A Brief History Of Time” and “The Universe In A Nutshell.” Though Stephen is currently bound to a wheelchair due to paralysis from Lou Gehrig’s disease (ALS). Hawking has been recognized as a revolutionary thinker and one who displays above average intelligence. == ستيفن هوكينج (بالإنجليزية: Stephen Hawking) ولد في أكسفورد، إنجلترا عام 1942 وهو من أبرز علماء الفيزياء النظرية على مستوى العالم، درس في جامعة أكسفورد وحصل منها على درجة الشرف الأولى في الفيزياء، أكمل دراسته في جامعة كامبريدج للحصول على الدكتوراة في علم الكون، له أبحاث نظرية في علم الكون وأبحاث في العلاقة بين الثقوب السوداءوالديناميكا الحرارية، وله دراسات في التسلسل الزمني. كفاءته في الفيزياء النظرية</SPAN>
أصيب هوكينغ بمرض عصبي وهو في عمر 21 هو مرض التصلب الجانبيALS وهو مرض مميت لا دواء له وقد ذكر الأطباء أنه لن يعيش أكثر من سنتين، ومع ذلك جاهد المرض وهو في عمر 70 الآن وهي مدة أطول مما ذكره الأطباء، ذلك المرض جعله مقعدا تماما غير قادر على الحراك، لكن مع ذلك استطاع أن يجاري بل وأن يتفوق على أقرانه من علماء الفيزياء رغم أن أيديهم كانت سليمة ويستطيعون أن يكتبوا المعادلات المعقدة ويجروا حساباتهم الطويلة على الورق كان هوكينج وبطريقة لا تصدق يجري هذه الحسابات في ذهنه، ويفخر بأنه حظي بذات اللقب وكرسي الأستاذية الذي حظي به من قبل السير إسحاق نيوتن. كمؤيد للتعلم</SPAN>مع تطور مرضه وأيضا بسبب إجرائه عملية للقصبة الهوائية بسبب التهاب القصبة، أصبح هوكنج غير قادر على النطق أو تحريك ذراعه أو قدمه أي أصبح غير قادر على الحركة تماما، فقامت شركة انتل للمعالجات والنظم الرقميه بتطوير نظام حاسوب خاص متصل بكرسيه يستطيع هوكينج به التحكم بحركة كرسيه والتخاطب باستخدام صوت مولد إلكترونيا وإصدار الأوامر عن طريق حركة عينه ورأسه وعن طريق حركة العينين، حيث يقوم بإخراج بيانات مخزنة مسبقا في الجهاز تمثل كلمات وأوامر. في 20 أبريل 2009، صرحت جامعة كامبردج بأن ستيفن هوكينغ مريض جدا وقد اُودع مستشفى إدينبروك. يعتبر هوكنج مثالا على الصبر وللتحدي مع صراعة للمرض الذي دام 47 سنة. يتميز ستيفن ببديهة عالية حيث أجاب على سؤال "ماذا يأتي قبل الانفجار الكبير في الكون؟" فكانت إجابته أن هذا السؤال يشبه سؤال "ما المكان الذي يقع شمال القطب الشمالي؟" وكانت هذه الاجابة تلخيصا لنظريته حول الكون المغلق والذي بلا حدود == CareerStephen Hawking was born on 8 January 1942 to Frank Hawking, a research biologist, and Isobel Hawking.[1] He has two younger sisters, Philippa and Mary, and an adopted brother, Edward.[2] Hawking's parents were living in North London, but moved to Oxford shortly before his birth, while London was under attack during the Second World War.[3] In 1950, when his father became head of the division of parasitology at the National Institute for Medical Research,[1] Hawking and his family moved to St Albans, Hertfordshire.[3] Hawking attended St Albans High School for Girls from 1950 to 1953; at that time, boys could attend the girls' school until the age of 10.[2] From the age of 11, he attended St Albans School, where he was an average, but not exceptional student.[3] He maintains his connection with the school, giving his name to one of the four houses and to an extracurricular science lecture series.[4] Hawking has named his secondary school mathematics teacher Dikran Tahta as an inspiration,[5] and originally wanted to study the subject at university. However, Hawking's father wanted him to apply to University College, Oxford, which his father had attended. As University College did not have a mathematics fellow at that time, they did not accept applications from students who wished to study that discipline. Therefore, Hawking applied to study natural sciences with an emphasis in physics. University College accepted Hawking, and he gained a scholarship. While at Oxford, he coxed a rowing team, which helped ease his immense boredom at the university. His physics tutor, Robert Berman, later said "It was only necessary for him to know that something could be done, and he could do it without looking to see how other people did it. ... his mind was completely different from all of his contemporaries". Hawking's unimpressive study habits resulted in a final examination score on the borderline between first and second class honours, making an oral examination necessary. Berman commented: "the examiners then were intelligent enough to realize they were talking to someone far more clever than most of themselves". After receiving his B.A. degree at Oxford in 1962, he left for graduate work at Trinity Hall, Cambridge. 1962–75 Hawking started developing symptoms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis upon his arrival at Cambridge. He did not distinguish himself in his first two years at the institution. With the help of his doctoral tutor, Dennis William Sciama, he returned to working on his PhD after the disease had stabilised[7] and graduated with his doctorate in 1966, before starting a four-year research fellowship at Cambridge. ==When Hawking began his graduate studies in the 1960s, there was much debate in the physics community about the opposing theories of the creation of the universe: big bang, and steady state. Hawking and his Cambridge friend and colleague, Roger Penrose, showed in 1970 that if the universe obeys general relativity and fits any of the Friedmann models, then it must have begun as a singularity.[8] This work showed that, far from being mathematical curiosities which appear only in exceptional circumstances, singularities are a fairly common feature of general relativity.[9] For their essay on this subject, Hawking and Penrose were jointly awarded the Adams prize in 1966.[10] This essay served as the basis for a textbook, The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time, that Hawking published with George Ellis in 1973. In 1969, Hawking accepted a specially created 'Fellowship for Distinction in Science' to remain at Cambridge. In the early 1970s, Hawking's work with Brandon Carter, Werner Israel and D. Robinson strongly supported John Wheeler's no-hair theorem – that any black hole can be fully described by the three properties of mass, angular momentum, and electric charge.[13] With Bardeen and Carter, he proposed the four laws of black hole mechanics, drawing an analogy with thermodynamics.[14] In 1974, he calculated that black holes should emit radiation, known today as Hawking radiation, until they exhaust their energy and evaporate.[8] Hawking was elected one of the youngest Fellows of the Royal Society in 1974,[15] and in the same year he accepted the Sherman Fairchild Distinguished Scholar visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) to work with his friend on the faculty, Kip Thorne.[16] He continues to maintain ties to Caltech, having spent a month each year there since 1992 - أصيب بمرض عصبي وعمره 21 سنة كاد ان يؤدي بحياته واصيبه على اثر ذلك بشلل تام حيث لا يعمل فيه الا دماغه وربما بعض اصابعه تساعده على استخدام الكمبيوتر والذي يستخدمه للكلام ايضا فهو لا يستطيع النقط من دون مساعدة الاجهزة. حياة كارثية واعاقة جسدية شبه كاملة. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xjBIsp8mS-c http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dr5MCbIPPsA |
Michelangelo - Michelangelo was a phenomenal painter, sculptor, architect, and poet. His diverse interest in art and the world really showed. He sculpted the Pieta and the David before he was 30 years old! He painted the Sistine Chapel and worked on the dome of St. Peter’s Basilica. Michelangelo was a genius that was able to bring an entirely new artistic perspective from his mind to reality. Michelangelo was born on 6 March 1475[a] in Caprese near Arezzo, Tuscany.[5] (Today, Caprese is known as Caprese Michelangelo). For several generations, his family had been small-scale bankers in Florence, but his father, Ludovico di Leonardo di Buonarotto Simoni, failed to maintain the bank's financial status, and held occasional government positions. Early adulthood Lorenzo de' Medici's death on 8 April 1492 brought a reversal of Michelangelo's circumstances. Michelangelo left the security of the Medici court and returned to his father's house. In the following months he carved a wooden crucifix (1493), as a gift to the prior of the Florentine church of Santo Spirito, which had permitted him some studies of anatomy on the corpses of the church's hospital. Between 1493 and 1494 he bought a block of marble for a larger than life statue of Hercules, which was sent to France and subsequently disappeared sometime circa 18th century. On 20 January 1494, after heavy snowfalls, Lorenzo's heir, Piero de Medici, commissioned a snow statue, and Michelangelo again entered the court of the Medici. In the same year, the Medici were expelled from Florence as the result of the rise of Savonarola. Michelangelo left the city before the end of the political upheaval, moving to Venice and then to Bologna. In Bologna, he was commissioned to finish the carving of the last small figures of the Shrine of St. Dominic, in the church dedicated to that saint. Towards the end of 1494, the political situation in Florence was calmer. The city, previously under threat from the French, was no longer in danger as Charles VIII had suffered defeats. Michelangelo returned to Florence but received no commissions from the new city government under Savonarola. He returned to the employment of the Medici. During the half year he spent in Florence, he worked on two small statues, a child St. John the Baptist and a sleeping Cupid. According to Condivi, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, for whom Michelangelo had sculpted St. John the Baptist, asked that Michelangelo "fix it so that it looked as if it had been buried" so he could "send it to Rome...pass [it off as] an ancient work and...sell it much better." Both Lorenzo and Michelangelo were unwittingly cheated out of the real value of the piece by a middleman. Cardinal Raffaele Riario, to whom Lorenzo had sold it, discovered that it was a fraud, but was so impressed by the quality of the sculpture that he invited the artist to Rome. This apparent success in selling his sculpture abroad as well as the conservative Florentine situation may have encouraged Michelangelo to accept the prelate's invitation == ميكيلانجيلو بوناروتي (بالإيطالية: Michelangelo Buonarroti) كان رسام ونحات ومهندس وشاعر إيطالي، كان لإنجازاته الفنية الأثر الأكبر على محور الفنون ضمن عصره وخلال المراحل الفنية الأوروبية اللاحقة. اعتبر ميكيلانجيلو أن جسد الإنسانالعاري الموضوع الأساسي بالفن مما دفعه لدراسة أوضاع الجسد وتحركاته ضمن البيئات المختلفة. حتى أن جميع فنونه المعمارية كانت ولابد أن تحتوي على شكل إنساني من خلال نافذة، جدار، أو باب.[2] كان ميكيلانجيلو يبحث دائما عن التحدي سواء كان تحديا جسديا أو عقليا، وأغلب المواضيع التي كان يعمل بها كانت تستلزم جهدًا بالغاً سواء كانت لوحات جصية أو لوحات فنية مرسومة، وكان ميكيلانجيلو يختار الوضعيات الأصعب للرسم إضافة لذلك كان دائما ما يخلق عدة معاني من لوحته من خلال دمج الطبقات المختلفة في صورة واحدة، وأغلب معانيه كان يستقيها من الأساطير، الدين، ومواضيع أخرى. نجاحه في قهر العقبات التي وضعها لنفسه في صنع تحفه كان مذهلا إلا أنه كثيرا ما كان يترك أعماله دون إنجاز وكأنه يُهزم بطموحهِ نفسه.[3] اثنان من أعظم أعماله النحتية، تمثال داوودوتمثال بيتتاالعذراء تنتحب قام بإنجازهما وهو دون سن الثلاثين. رغم كون ميكيلانجيلو من الفنانين شديدي التدين فقد عبر عن أفكارهالشخصية فقط من خلال أعماله الأخيرة. فقد كانت أعماله الأخيرة من وحي واستلهام الديانة المسيحية مثل صلب المسيح.[ تعرف ميكيلانجيلو، خلال مسيرة عمله، على مجموعة من الأشخاص المثقفين يتمتعون بنفوذ اجتماعي كبير. رعاته كانوا دائما من رجال الأعمال الفاحش الثراء أو رجال ذوي المكانة الاجتماعية القوية بالإضافة لأعضاء الكنيسة وزعمائها، من ضمنهم البابا يوليوس الثاني، كليمنت السابع وبولس الثالث. سعى ميكيلانجيلو دائما ليكون مقبولاً من رعاته لأنه كان يعلم بأنهم الوحيدون القادرون على جعل أعماله حقيقة. من صفات ميكيلانجيلو أنه كان يعتبر الفن عمل يجب أن يتضمن جهدا كبيراً وعملاً مضنياً فكانت معظم أعماله تتطلب جهداً عضلي وعدداً كبيرا من العمال وقليلاً ما كان يفضل الرسم العادي الذي يمكن أداؤه بلباس نظيف. وتُعتبر هذه الرؤية من إحدى تناقضاته التي جعلته يتطور في نفسه من حرفي إلى فنان عبقري قام بخلقه بنفسه. قام ميكيلانجيلو في فترة من حياته بمحاولة تدمير كافة اللوحات التي قام برسمها ولم يبق من لوحاته إلا بضعة لوحات ومنها لوحة باسم "دراسة لجذع الذكر"، التي أكملها عام 1550 والتي بيعت في صالة مزادات كريستي بنحو أربعة ملايين دولار، وكانت هذه اللوحة واحدة من عدة رسومات قليلة للأعمال الأخيرة لميكيلانجيلو الذي توفي عام 1564، والتي تبدو أنها تمت بصلة إلى شخصية المسيح. أثارت عملية تنظيف تمثال داوود الشهير، في الذكرى الخمسمئة لنحته، بالمياه المقطرة، جدلا واسعا، حيث وافق وزير الثقافةالإيطالي "جوليانو أوروباني" على تنظيفه رغم احتجاج العديد من الخبراء على طريقة التنظيف،[8] حيث رأى البعض أن تلك الطريقة في التنظيف ستلحق أضرارا بالرخام وسط مخاوف من أن تصبح منحوتة داوود أشبه بمنحوتة عادية من الجص، وطرح الخبراء فكرة التنظيف الجاف الذي رفضه وزير الثقافة جوليانو أوروباني. بالرغم من اعتبار رسم اللوحات من الاهتمامات الثانوية عند ميكيلانجيلو إلا أنه تمكن من رسم لوحات جدارية عملاقة أثرت بصورة كبيرة على منحى الفن التشكيلي الأوروبي مثل تصوير قصة سفر التكوين في العهد القديم على سقف كنيسة سيستاين، ولوحة يوم القيامة على منبر كنيسة سيستايت في روما. ما يُعتبر فريدا في حياة فناني عصر النهضة إن ميكيلانجيلو كان الفنان الوحيد الذي تم كتابة سيرته على يد مؤرخين بينما كان على قيد الحياة حيث قام المؤرخ جورجو فازاري بكتابة سيرته وهو على قيد الحياة، ووصف الأخير ميكيلانجيلو بذروة فناني عصر النهضة. مما لا شك فيه أن ميكيلانجيلو قد أثر على من عاصروه ومن لحقوه بتأثيرات عميقة فأصبح أسلوبه بحد ذاته مدرسة وحركة فنية تعتمد على تضخيم أساليبه ومبادئه بشكل مبالغ به حتى أواخر عصر النهضة فكانت هذه المدرسة تستقي مبادئها من رسوماته ذات الوضعيات المعقدة والمرونة الأنيقة. حياته وأعماله نشأته ولد ميكيلانجيلو في قرية كابريزي قرب أريتسوبتوسكانا وترعرع في فلورنسا، التي كانت مركز النهضة الأوروبية آنذاك، ومن محيطها المليء بمنجزات فناني النهضة السابقين إلى تحف الإغريق المذهلة، استطاع أن يتعلم ويستقي منها الكثير عن فن النحتوالرسم. كانت أسرة ميكيلانجيلو من أبرز المصرفيين الصغار في فلورنسا، لكن والده، "لودفيكو دي ليوناردو دي بوناروتي دي سيموني"، شذ عن باقي أفراد العائلة، وشغل عدّة مناصب حكومية خلال حياته، أما والدته فهي "فرانشيسكا دي نيري دل مينياتو دي سيينا". زعمت أسرة بوناروتي أن أبنائها يتحدرون من "ماتيلدي التوسكانية" وهي إحدى نبيلات إيطاليا القديمات، وعلى الرغم من أن هذا الزعم ما زال غير مؤكد، إلا أن ميكيلانجيلو نفسه كان مؤمنًا به. بعد بضعة أشهر من ولادة ميكيلانجيلو، عادت أسرته إلى فلورنسا، حيث قضى سنوات صباه، وفي سنة 1481، أي عندما كان يبلغ من العمر ست سنوات فحسب، توفيت والدته بعد صراع طويل مع المرض، فانتقل ميكيلانجيلو ليعيش مع أسرة رجل يعمل في قلع الحجارة ببلدة "سيتيغنانو"، حيث كان ولده يملك مقلعًا للرخامومزرعة صغيرة. يتيم الام في سن السادسة حيث ماتت امه بعد مرض عضال . كما انه عاش بعد عن الاب لدى عائلة بديلة في طفولته. يتيم الام في سن السادسة. |
Archimedes مجهول الطفولة. - Archimedes was a Greek philosopher, engineer, inventor and astronomer. He is also considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time. Though there isn’t a ton of documented information regarding his personal life, we do know that he has had a large impact on science and physics. Archimedes’ thoughts were clearly ahead of his time: not many would disagree that he was a genius. == Archimedes was born c. 287 BC in the seaport city of Syracuse, Sicily, at that time a self-governing colony in Magna Graecia. The date of birth is based on a statement by the Byzantine Greek historian John Tzetzes that Archimedes lived for 75 years.[8] In The Sand Reckoner, Archimedes gives his father's name as Phidias, an astronomer about whom nothing is known. Plutarch wrote in his Parallel Lives that Archimedes was related to King Hiero II, the ruler of Syracuse.[9] A biography of Archimedes was written by his friend Heracleides but this work has been lost, leaving the details of his life obscure.[10] It is unknown, for instance, whether he ever married or had children. During his youth, Archimedes may have studied in Alexandria, Egypt, where Conon of Samos and Eratosthenes of Cyrene were contemporaries. He referred to Conon of Samos as his friend, while two of his works (The Method of Mechanical Theorems and the Cattle Problem) have introductions addressed to Eratosthenes.[a] Archimedes died c. 212 BC during the Second Punic War, when Roman forces under General Marcus Claudius Marcellus captured the city of Syracuse after a two-year-long siege. According to the popular account given by Plutarch, Archimedes was contemplating a mathematical diagram when the city was captured. A Roman soldier commanded him to come and meet General Marcellus but he declined, saying that he had to finish working on the problem. The soldier was enraged by this, and killed Archimedes with his sword. Plutarch also gives a lesser-known account of the death of Archimedes which suggests that he may have been killed while attempting to surrender to a Roman soldier. According to this story, Archimedes was carrying mathematical instruments, and was killed because the soldier thought that they were valuable items. General Marcellus was reportedly angered by the death of Archimedes, as he considered him a valuable scientific asset and had ordered that he not be harmed. A sphere has 2/3 the volume and surface area of its circumscribing cylinder. A sphere and cylinder were placed on the tomb of Archimedes at his request. The last words attributed to Archimedes are "Do not disturb my circles", a reference to the circles in the mathematical drawing that he was supposedly studying when disturbed by the Roman soldier. This quote is often given in Latin as "Noli turbare circulos meos," but there is no reliable evidence that Archimedes uttered these words and they do not appear in the account given by Plutarch. |
Warren Buffet – Though Warren Buffet isn’t a big contributor to science like many other names listed, he does have a ton of knowledge about making money through investing. He is a known philanthropist (someone who donates their time & money for charitable causes) and Time Magazine has regarded Buffet as one of the Top 100 Most Influential People in the world. He was also ranked by Forbes in 2008 as the richest person in the world. His company [Berkshire Hathaway] has an estimated net worth of $62 billion dollars. Warren is a very intelligent man and a financial genius. == Buffett was born in 1930 in Omaha, Nebraska, the second of three children and only son of U.S. Representative Howard Buffett,[14] a fierce critic of the interventionist New Deal domestic and foreign policy, and his wife Leila (née Stahl). Buffett began his education at Rose Hill Elementary School in Omaha. In 1942, his father was elected to the first of four terms in the United States Congress, and after moving with his family to Washington, D.C., Warren finished elementary school, attended Alice Deal Junior High School, and graduated from Woodrow Wilson High School in 1947, where his senior yearbook picture reads: "likes math; a future stockbroker".[15] Even as a child, Buffett displayed an interest in making and saving money. He went door to door selling chewing gum, Coca-Cola, or weekly magazines. For a while, he worked in his grandfather's grocery store. While still in high school he was successful in making money by delivering newspapers, selling golfballs and stamps, and detailing cars, among other means. Filing his first income tax return in 1944, Buffett took a $35 deduction for the use of his bicycle and watch on his paper route.[16] In 1945, in his sophomore year of high school, Buffett and a friend spent $25 to purchase a used pinball machine, which they placed in the local barber shop. Within months, they owned several machines in different barber shops. Buffett's interest in the stock market and investing also dated to his childhood, to the days he spent in the customers' lounge of a regional stock brokerage near the office of his father's own brokerage company. On a trip to New York City at the age of ten, he made a point to visit the New York Stock Exchange. At the age of 11, he bought three shares of Cities Service Preferred for himself, and three for his sister.[17][18] While in high school he invested in a business owned by his father and bought a farm worked by a tenant farmer. By the time he finished college, Buffett had accumulated more than $90,000 in savings measured in 2009 dollars. Buffett entered college as a freshman in 1947 at the Wharton Business School of the University of Pennsylvania and studied there for two years from 1947 to 1949. In the year 1950, when he entered his junior year, he transferred to the University of Nebraska–Lincoln where at the age of nineteen, he graduated with a Bachelor of Science in business administration. After the completion of his undergraduate studies, Buffett enrolled at Columbia Business School after learning that Benjamin Graham (author of "The Intelligent Investor" – one of his favorite books on investing) and David Dodd, two well-known securities analysts, taught there. He earned a Master of Science in economics from Columbia in 1951. Buffett also attended the New York Institute of Finance. In Buffett's own words: “ I'm 15 percent Fisher and 85 percent Benjamin Graham. The basic ideas of investing are to look at stocks as business, use the market's fluctuations to your advantage, and seek a margin of safety. That's what Ben Graham taught us. A hundred years from now they will still be the cornerstones of investing.[ يلاحظ انه اندفع للعمل في سن مبكرة جدا في اعمال مثل بيع الجرائد ولا يعرف شيء عن والدته. مجهول الطفولة. |
Swami Vivekananda - In the Eastern world, Swami Vivekananda is regarded as a genius by many. He was one of the most influential and spiritual leaders ever and was a highly-renowned thinker. Because of his insight and unique philosophy that he had contributed to eastern religions, his knowledge and intellect will continue to be admired. == Swami Vivekananda ( pronounced: IPA: (12 January 1863–4 July 1902), born Narendra Nath Datta (IPA: was an Indian Hindu monk. He was a key figure in the introduction of Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the western world[4] and was credited with raising interfaith awareness, bringing Hinduism to the status of a major world religion in the late 19th century.[5] He was a major force in the revival of Hinduism in India and contributed to the notion of nationalism in colonial India.[6] He was the chief disciple of the 19th century saint Ramakrishna and the founder of the Ramakrishna Math and the Ramakrishna Mission.[4] He is perhaps best known for his inspiring speech beginning with "Sisters and Brothers of America,"[7] through which he introduced Hinduism at the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago in 1893. Born into an aristocratic Bengali Kayastha family of Calcutta, Swami Vivekananda showed an inclination towards spirituality and God realisation. His guru, Ramakrishna, taught him Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism); that all religions are true and that service to man was the most effective worship of God. After the death of his guru, Vivekananda became a wandering monk, extensively touring the Indian subcontinent and acquiring first-hand knowledge of conditions in India. He later travelled to the United States and represented India as a delegate in the 1893 Parliament of World Religions. He conducted hundreds of public and private lectures and classes, disseminating tenets of Hindu philosophy in America, England and Europe. He established the Vedanta societies in America and England. In America Vivekananda became India's spiritual ambassador. His mission there was the interpretation of India's spiritual culture and heritage. He also tried to enrich the religious consciousness of Americans through the teachings of the Vedanta philosophy. In India Vivekananda is regarded as a patriotic saint of modern India and his birthday is celebrated as National Youth Day. In Swami Vivekananda's own words, he was "condensed India". William James, the Harvard philosopher, called Vivekananda the "paragon of Vedantists". Rabindranath Tagore's suggestion (to Nobel LaureateRomain Rolland) was– "If you want to know India, study Vivekananda. In him everything is positive and nothing negative."[8] Early life (1863–1888) Birth and childhood Swami Vivekananda was born as Narendranath Dutta in Calcutta, the capital of British India, on 12 January 1863 during the Makar Sankranti festival. He belonged to a traditional Bengali Kayastha (a caste of Hindus) family. There was precedence of ascetics in his family—Narendra's grandfather Durga Charan Datta renounced the world and became a monk at the age of twenty five.[10] Narendra's father Vishwanath Datta was an attorney of Calcutta High Court.[11] Vishwanath Datta had a liberal, progressive outlook on social and religious matters.[12] Narendra's mother, Bhuvaneswari Devi[nb 1], was a pious woman. Before the birth of Narendra, she yearned for a son and asked a relative at Varanasi to make religious offerings to the god Shiva.[14] According to traditional accounts, Bhuvaneswari Devi had a dream in which Shiva said that he would be born as her son.[15] Bhuvaneswari Devi accepted the child as a boon from Shiva and named him Vireswara, meaning "powerful god" in Bengali.[14] The rational approach of his father and the religious temperament of his mother helped shape young Narendra's thinking and personality.[16][17] He learnt the power of self-control from his mother.[17] In later life, Narendra often quoted a saying of his mother, "Remain pure all your life; guard your own honour and never transgress the honour of others. Be very tranquil, but when necessary, harden your heart."[18] He was adept in meditation and could enter the state of samadhi (a higher level of concentrated meditation).[17] He would often visualise a light while falling asleep and had a vision of Gautama Buddha during his meditation.[19] During his childhood, he was fascinated by the wandering ascetics and monks.[17] With Ramakrishna</SPAN>Narendra had interest and a wide range of scholarship in philosophy, religion, history, the social sciences, arts, literature, and other subjects.[21] He evinced interest in the Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas. He trained in Indian classical music under two Ustads (maestro), Beni Gupta and Ahamad Khan.[22] He regularly participated in physical exercise, sports, and organisational activities.[21] Even when he was young, he questioned the validity of superstitious customs and discrimination based on caste and refused to accept anything without rational proof and pragmatic test.[14][16] Narendra joined the Metropolitan Institution of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar in 1871 and studied there till 1877 when his family moved to Raipur.[23] The family returned to Calcutta two years later. "The magic touch of the Master that day immediately brought a wonderful change over my mind. I was astounded to find that really there was nothing in the universe but God! ... everything I saw appeared to be Brahman. ... I realized that I must have had a glimpse of the Advaita state. Then it struck me that the words of the scriptures were not false. Thenceforth I could not deny the conclusions of the Advaita philosophy."[40] Narendra's meeting with Ramakrishna in November 1881 proved to be a turning point in Narendra's life.[41] Narendra said about this first meeting that "Ramakrishna looked just like an ordinary man, with nothing remarkable about him. He used the most simple language and I thought 'Can this man be a great teacher?'. I crept near to him and asked him the question which I had been asking others all my life: 'Do you believe in God, Sir?' 'Yes', he replied. 'Can you prove it, Sir?' 'Yes'. 'How?' 'Because I see Him just as I see you here, only in a much intenser sense.' That impressed me at once. [...] I began to go to that man, day after day, and I actually saw that religion could be given. One touch, one glance, can change a whole life."[41][42] Though Narendra did not accept Ramakrishna as his guru initially and revolted against his ideas, he was attracted by his personality and visited him frequently.[43] He initially looked upon Ramakrishna's ecstasies and visions as, "mere figments of imagination",[16] "mere hallucinations".[44] As a member of Brahmo Samaj, he revolted against idol worship and polytheism, and Ramakrishna's worship of Kali.[45] He even rejected the Advaitist Vedantism of identity with absolute as blasphemy and madness and often made fun of the concept.[44] Though at first Narendra could not accept Ramakrishna and his visions, he did not neglect him. Instead, he tested Ramakrishna, who faced all of Narendra's arguments and examinations with patience—"Try to see the truth from all angles" was his reply. During the course of five years of his training under Ramakrishna, Narendra was increasingly ready to renounce everything for the sake of realising God. In time, Narendra accepted Ramakrishna as his guru and completely surrendered as disciple.[43] Founding of the Ramakrishna Math</SPAN>In 1885, Ramakrishna developed throat cancer and he was transferred to Calcutta and later to Cossipore. Narendra and Ramakrishna's other disciples took care of him during his final days. Narendra's spiritual education under Ramakrishna continued. At Cossipore, Narendra reportedly experienced Nirvikalpa Samadhi.[46] During Ramakrishna's last days, Narendra and some of the other disciples received the ochre monastic robes from Ramakrishna, forming the first monastic order of Ramakrishna.[47] Narendra was taught that service to men was the most effective worship of God.[16][48] When young Narendra Nath doubted Ramakrishna's claim of avatar, Ramakrishna said, "He who was Rama, He who was Krishna, He himself is now Ramakrishna in this body."[49] During his final days, Ramakrishna asked Narendra Nath to take care of other monastic disciples and in turn asked them to look upon Vivekananda as their leader.[50] Ramakrishna died in the early morning hours of 16 August 1886 at his garden house in Cossipore. According to his disciples, this was Mahasamadhi.[50] After the death of Ramakrishna, many of his disciples returned home and were inclined towards a Grihastha (family-oriented) life.[52] Such Grihastha disciples financially helped the monastic disciples led by Vivekananda to form fellowship at a derelict house at Baranagar on the river Ganges. The house became the first building of the Ramakrishna Math—the monastery of the first monastic order of Ramakrishna.[41] The dilapidated house was chosen because of its low rent and proximity to the Cossipore burning-ghat where Ramakrishna was cremated. Narendra and other members of the Math spent their time in meditation, discussing the philosophies and teachings of spiritual teachers including Ramakrishna, Adi Shankara, Ramanuja, and Jesus Christ.[53] Narendra later reminisced about the early days in the monastery:[53] “ We underwent a lot of religious practice at the Baranagar Math. We used to get up at 3:00 am and become absorbed in japa and meditation. What a strong spirit of detachment we had in those days! We had no thought even as to whether the world existed or not. ” In January 1887, Narendra and eight other disciples took formal monastic vows. Narendra took the name of Swami Bibidishananda. Later he was crowned with the name Vivekananda by Ajit Singh, the Maharaja of Khetri.[54] In January 1899 the Baranagar Math was transferred to Belur in the Howrah district, now known as the Belur Math.[citation needed] As a wandering monk in India (1888–1893)</SPAN>In 1888, Vivekananda left the monastery as a Parivrâjaka—the Hindu religious life of a wandering monk, "without fixed abode, without ties, independent and strangers wherever they go."[56] His sole possessions were a kamandalu (water pot), staff, and his two favourite books—Bhagavad Gita and The Imitation of Christ.[57] Vivekananda travelled extensively in India for five years, visiting centres of learning, acquainting himself with the diverse religious traditions and different patterns of social life.[58][59] He developed a sympathy for the suffering and poverty of the masses and resolved to uplift the nation.[58][60] Living mainly on bhiksha (alms), Vivekananda travelled on foot and railway tickets bought by his admirers whom he met during the travels. During these travels he made acquaintance and stayed with Indians from all walls of life and religions—scholars, dewans, rajas, Hindus, Muslims, Christians, pariahs (low caste workers) and government officials == Difficult Situations After a few years two events took place which caused Narendra considerable distress. One was the sudden death of his father in 1884. This left the family penniless, and Narendra had to bear the burden of supporting his mother, brothers and sisters. The second event was the illness of Sri Ramakrishna which was diagnosed to be cancer of the throat. In September 1885 Sri Ramakrishna was moved to a house at Shyampukur, and a few months later to a rented villa at Cossipore. In these two places the young disciples nursed the Master with devoted care. In spite of poverty at home and inability to find a job for himself, Narendra joined the group as its leader. في سن 21 وقعت حدث تسبب له بحزن والم بكآبة شديدة distress وهو موت والده الفجائي حيث اصبحت العائلة بلا معيل وشديدة الفقر، ثم وقع حدث آخر شديدة الوقع حينما مات معلمه quru وهو في سن الثانية والعشرين. يتيم الاب في سن 21 |
Samuel Johnson النشأة المشوهة</SPAN>- Samuel Johnson is regarded as one of the biggest literary influences of all time. He was a biographer, critic, and essayist. Johnson is the highest quoted author since William Shakespeare and was one of the most influential people in the 18th century. The man invented and compiled terms for what many consider the first official dictionary. -= لقد كان نسيج وحده، ومع ذلك كان نموذجياً، فهو يختلف عن أي إنجليزي في زمانه، ومع ذلك فهو خلاصة لجون بول جسداً وروحاً، يبزه معاصروه في جميع الميادين الأدبية (خلا تصنيف المعاجم) ومع ذلك فهو يسود عليهم جيلاً بأسره، ويملك عليهم دون أن يرفع شيئاً إلا صوته. ولنلم الآن إلمامة سريعة بالضربات التي طرقته لتشكل طابعه الفريد. فلقد كان أول طفل ولد لمايكل جونسن، الكتبي، والطباع، وتاجر الأدوات الكتابية في لتشفيلد، على 118 ميلاً من لندن. أما أمه فترقى أرومتها إلى قوم بهم إثارة من نبالة. كانت تبلغ السابعة والثلاثين حين تزوجت في 1706 مايكل البالغ من العمر خمسين عاماً. وكان صموئيل غلاماً، بلغ من ضعفه حين ولد أنه عمد للتو مخافة أن يكون مأواه الأبدي-إن مات بغير عماد-في الأعراف، مدخل الجحيم الكئيب. وسرعان ما بدت عليه إمارات "داء الملك" (الخنازيري). فلما أن بلغ ثلاثين شهراً أخذته أمه رغم أنها حامل في ولدها الثاني في الرحلة الطويلة إلى لندن لكي "تلمسه الملكة ليبرأ من الخنازيري" وصنعت الملكة قصارها ولكن المرض كلف جونسن الاكتفاء بعين واحدة وأذن واحدة، وشارك غيره من البلايا في تشويه وجهه(1). على أنه اشتد رغم ذلك عضلاً وهيكلاً، ودعمت قوته كما دعمت ضخامته تلك النزعة الاستبدادية التي أحالت جمهورية الأدب إلى ملكية كما شكا جولدسمث. وقد ذهب صموئيل إلى أنه ورث عن أبيه "ذلك المزاج السوداوي الكريه الذي جعلني مجنوناً طوال حياتي، أو على الأقل غير متزن"(2). ولعل لوهمه المرضي أساساً دينياً لا بدنياً فقط، كما كان الشأن مع كوبر، فلقد كانت أم جونسن كلفنية راسخة تؤمن بأن الهلاك الأبدي قاب قوسين منها. وقد قاسى صموئيل من رهبة الجحيم إلى يوم مماته. وعن أبيه أخذ مبادئ المحافظين، والميول الاستيوارتية، والشغف بالكتب. فكان يقرأ بعضهم في مكتبة أبيه، وقد قال لبوزويل فيما بعد، "كنت في الثامنة عشرة أعرف تقريباً قدر ما أعرفه الآن"(3). وبعد أن نال حظاً من التعليم الأولي انتقل إلى مدرسة لتشفيلد الثانوية، وكان في ناظرها "من الضراوة ما جعل الآباء الذين تعلموا على يديه يأبون إرسال أبنائهم إلى مدرسته"(4). على أنه حين سئل في كبره كيف أتيح له أن يتمكن من اللاتينية على هذا النحو أجاب "كان معلمي يحسن ضربي بالسوط. لولا ذلك يا سيدي لما أفلحت في شيء"(5). وقد أعرب في شيخوخته عن أسفه لإهمال العصا. " في مدارسنا الكبرى اليوم يجلدون التلاميذ أقل مما كانوا يجلدونهم في الماضي، ولكن ما يتعلمونه فيها أقل، فهم يخسرون في طرف ما حصلوه في الطرف الآخر"(6). وفي 1728 أتيح لأبويه من الموارد ما يسر لهما إرساله إلى أكسفورد، وهناك راح يلتهم الكلاسيكيات اليونانية واللاتينية ويزعج معلميه بعصيانه وتمرده. وفي ديسمبر 1729 عجل بالعودة إلى لتشفيلد، وربما لنفاد مال أبويه، أو لأن وهمه المرضي قد قارب الجنون قرباً أحوجه إلى العلاج الطبي. وعولج في برمنجهام، ثم ساعد أباه في متجره بدلاً من العودة إلى أكسفورد. فلما أن مات الأب (ديسمبر 1731) اشتغل صموئيل مدرساً مساعداً في مدرسة بماركيت بوزوبرث. وسرعان ما مل هذا العمل بعد قليل، فانتقل إلى برمنكجهام، وسكن مع كتبي، وكسب خمسة جنيهات بترجمة كتاب عن الحبشة، وكان هذا مرجعاً بعيداً لقصته "راسيلاس". وفي 1734 ففل إلى ليتشفيلد حيث كانت أمه وأخوه يواصلان العمل في المتجر. وفي 9 يوليو 1735، قبل أن يتم السادسة والعشرين بشهرين، تزوج إليزابث بورتر، وكانت أرملة في الثامنة والأربعين لها ثلاثة أطفال وتملك 700 جنيه. وبمالها هذا افتتح مدرسة داخلية في إديال القريبة منه. وكان من تلاميذه ديفي جاريك، أحد صبية لتشفيلد، ولكن لم يكن هناك ما يكفي لاستمالته إلى مهنة التعليم، وكان التأليف يختمر في باطنه. فكتب مسرحية سناها "أيريني"، وبعث بكلمة لأدورد كيف محرر "مجلة الجنتلمان" يشرح كيف يمكن تحسين تلك المجلة. وفي 2 مارس 1737 انطلق إلى لندن مع ديفد جاريك وجواد واحد، ليبيع مأساته ويشق لنفسه طريقاً في العالم القاسي. على ان مظهره يعاكسه. كان نحيلاً طويلاً، ولكن كان له هيكل ناتئ العظام جعله كتلة من الزوايا. وكان وجهه مبقعاً بندوب الداء الخنازيري تهيجه مراراً انقباضة تشنجية، وكان جسمه عرضة لانتفاضات مزعجة، وحديثه تؤكده حركات وإيماءات غريبة. وقد نصحه كتبي طلب عنده عملاً بأن "يحصل على إنشوطة حمال ويحمل الحقائب"(7). والظاهر أنه تلقى بعض التشجيع من كيف، لأنه في يوليو عاد إلى لتشفيلد وأتى بزوجته إلى لندن. ولم يكن خلواً من المكر. فحين هوجم كيف في الصحف نظم جونسن قصيدة في الدفاع عنه وأرسلها إليه، فنشرها كيف، وكلفه بمهام أدبية، وانضم إلى ددسلي في نشر قصيدة جونسن "لندن" (مايو 1738) التي نقداه عشرة جنيهات ثمناً لها. وقد قلدت القصيدة في غير مواريه "الهجائية الثالثة" لجوفنال، ومن ثم أكدت الجوانب المؤسفة لمدينة لندن التي سرعان ما تعلم الكاتب أن يحبها، كذلك كانت هجوماً على حكومة روبرت ولبول، الذي وصفه جونسن فيما بعد بأنه "خير وزير عرفته البلاد"(8). وكانت القصيدة من بعض نواحيها هجوماً غاضباً لشاب ظل غير واثق من قوت غده بعد أن قضى عاماً في لندن. ومن هنا بيته المشهور "أن الكفاية تصعد ببطئ لأن الفقر يوهنها"(9). في أيام الكفاح تلك جرب جونسن قلمه في كل لون من ألوان الأدب. كتب "سير العظماء" (1740)، ودبج مقالات شتى لمجلة الجنتلمان، منها تقارير وهمية عن المناقشات البرلمانية. وكان نشر المناقشات البرلمانية محظوراً حتى ذلك التاريخ، فوقع كيف على حيلة ادعى بها أن مجلته إنما تسجل المناقشات في "مجلس شيوخ مجنا للبيوتيا". وفي 1741 اضطلع جونسن بهذه المهمة. ومن المعلومات العامة التي اجتمعت له عن سير النقاش في البرلمان ألف خطباً نسبها إلى شخصيات كانت أسماؤهم تصحيفاً لأسماء كبار المجادلين في مجلس العموم(10). وكان في هذه التقارير من مظهر الصدق ما أوقع في روع الكثير من القراء أنها تقارير حرفية، واضطر جونسن إلى أن ينبه سموليت (الذي كان يكتب تاريخاً لإنجلترا) إلى عدم الاعتماد عليها كتقارير حقيقية. وذات مرة علق جونسن على إطراء سمعه لخطبة نسبها إلى شاتان بقوله "هذه الخطبة كتبتها في علية بأكستر ستريت"(11). فلما أثنى بعضهم على حياد تقاريره اعترف قائلاً "لقد أحسنت إنقاذ المظاهر إلى حد معقول، ولكن حرصت على ألا يكون كلاب الهويجز هم الفائزون"(12). ترى كم كان اجره على عمله هذا؟ لقد وصف كيف مرة بأنه "صراف بخيل"، ولكنه صرح غير مرة بحبه لذكراه. وقد دفع له كيف تسعة وأربعين جنيهاً بين 2 أغسطس 1738 و12 أبريل 1739، وفي 1744 قدر جونسن أن مبلغ خمسين جنيهاً في العام "يفيض ولا ريب عن حاجات الحياة"(13). غير أن الناس جروا على القول بأن جونسن كان يعيش في تلك السنين في فقر مدقع في لندن. وقد اعتقد بوزويل أن "جونسن وسفدج بلغ بهما الأملاق أحياناً مبلغاً أعجزتهما عن دفع إيجار مسكن، فكانا يجوبان الشوارع ليالي بأكملها"(14)، وزعم ماكولي أن شهور الضنك تلك عودت جونسن قذارة الهندام و"شدة الشره" للطعام(15). وقد ادعى رتشرد ساڤدج أنه ابن لأحد الأيرلات، دون أن تقنع دعواه الناس ولكنه كان قد بات متبطلاً لا يصلح لشيء حين لقيه جونسن في 1737. وقد جابا الشوارع لأنهما أحبا الحانات أكثر مما أحبا مسكنيهما ويذكر بوزويل "بكل ما يمكن من احترام ولياقة.". أن سلوك جونسن بعد مجيئه إلى لندن، ومعاشرته لسافدج وغيره، لم يكن فيهما شديد الالتزام بالفضيلة، في إحدى النواحي، كما كان هو أصغر سناً. وقد عرف عنه أن ميوله الغرامية كانت قوية عاتية إلى حد غير عادي. واعترف لكثير من أصدقائه أنه اعتاد أن يأخذ نساء المدينة إلى الحانات، ويستمع إليهن وهن يروين سيرتهن. وباختصار يجب ألا نخفي أن جونسن، كغيره من الرجال الطيبين الأتقياء الكثيرين (أكان بوزويل ذاكراً بنفسه وهو يقول هذا؟)... لم يكن خلواً من النوازع التي كانت على الدوام "تشن حرباً على ناموس عقله"-وأنه في معاركه معها كان يهزم أحياناً"(16). وقد رحل سافدج عن لندن في يوليو 1739 ومات في سجن للمدنيين عام 1743. وبعد ذلك بعام أصدر جونسن "سيرة رتشارد سافدج"، وهو كتاب وصفه فيلدنج بأنه "قطعة من الأدب لا تقل أنصافاً وإجادة عن أي قطعة قرأتها من نوعها"(17). وكانت هذه السيرة إرهاصاً بكتاب جونسن "سير الشعراء" (وقد ضمنت فيه). ونشرت السيرة غفلاً من اسم الكاتب، ولكن سرعان ما اكتشف أدباء لندن أن جونسن كاتبها. وبدأ الكتابيون يرون فيه الرجل المؤهل لتصنيف قاموس للغة الإنجليزية. Next only to William Shakespeare, Samuel Johnson is perhaps the most quoted of English writers. The latter part of the eighteenth century is often (in English-speaking countries, of course) called, simply, the Age of Johnson. Johnson was born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, England, in 1709. His mother did not have enough milk for him, and so he was put out to nurse. From his nurse he contracted a tubercular infection called scrofula, which inflamed the lymph glands and spread to the optic and auditory nerves, leaving him deaf in the left ear, almost blind in the left eye, and dim of vision in the right eye. It also left scar tissue which disfigured his face, as did a later childhood bout with small-pox. Young Johnson responded to his disabilities by a fierce determination to be independent and to accept help and pity from no one. When he was three or four years old, a household servant regularly took him to school and walked him home again. One day the servant was not there in time, and Johnson started for home by himself. Coming to an open ditch across the street, he got down on all fours to peer at it before attempting to cross. His teacher had followed to watch him, and now approached to help. He spied her, and angrily pushed her away. Throughout his life, he feared that ill health would tempt him to self-indulgence and self-pity, and bent over backwards to resist the temptation. He had an uncle who was a local boxing champion, and who taught him to fight, so that years later he walked without fear in the worst sections of London. Once four robbers attacked him, and he held his own until the watch arrived and arrested them. Sports where he had to see a ball were out of the question. He turned instead to swimming, leaping, and climbing (and, in season, to sliding on frozen lakes and ponds). In his seventies, revisiting his native Lichfield, he looked for a rail that he used to jump over as a boy, and having found it, he laid aside his hat and wig, and his coat, and leaped over it twice, a feat that left him, as he said, "in a transport of joy". In middle age, not having swum for years, he went swimming with a friend who warned him of a section of river that was dangerous, where someone had recently drowned. Johnson promptly swam to that section. On another occasion, he was told that a gun was old and dangerous to fire. He promptly loaded it and fired it at a wall. When he was eight years old, he stopped going to church, and abandoned his religion. A few years later, however, he began to think that it was wrong of him to do so without investigating the matter, and the pangs of guilt he had over not having read theology before rejecting it brought him to the conclusion that there must be a Moral Law (else what is guilt about?) and hence a Lawgiver. As a youth, he developed a fondness for disputation, and often, as he admits, chose the wrong side of the debate because it would be more challenging. In October, 1728, having just turned nineteen, Johnson entered Pembroke College, Oxford. His mother had inherited a lump sum which was enough to pay for a year at Oxford, and he had a prospect of further aid. But the prospect fell through, and after one year Johnson was forced to drop out of Oxford. While at Oxford, Johnson read Bernard Mandeville's Fable of the Bees, With an Enquiry Into the Origin of Moral Virtue. Mandeville argues (among many other things) that what are commonly called virtues are disguised vices. This made a deep impression on Johnson, and made him watchful for corruption in his own motives. A more fundamental influence was that of William Law's book Serious Call To a Devout and Holy Life. Johnson reports that he "began to read it expecting to find it a dull book (as such books generally are), and perhaps to laugh at it. But I found Law quite an overmatch for me; and this was the first occasion of my thinking in earnest of religion, after I became capable of rational inquiry." As his first year at Oxford was ending, his money was running out. He had only one pair of shoes, and his toes showed through the ends. A gentleman, seeing this, placed a new pair of shoes outside Johnson's door at night, and Johnson, finding them in the morning, threw them away in a fit of shame and wounded pride. In December, 1729, with his fees well in arrears, Johnson was forced to leave Oxford. He wrote a short poem, The Young Author, dealing with the dreams of greatness of someone just starting to write, and the almost certain destruction of those dreams. The moral is: "Do not let yourself hope for much, and you will be the less disappointed." Out of Oxford, with no hope of the academic career for which his native talents suited him, Johnson sank for two years into a deep depression, a despair and inability to act, wherein, as he later told a friend, he could stare at the town clock and not be able to tell what time it was. He feared that he was falling into insanity, and considered suicide. He developed convulsive tics, jerks, and twitches, that remained with him for the remainder of his life, and often caused observers who did not know him to think him an idiot. In his depressed state, Johnson met the Porters. Mr. Porter was a prosperous merchant. He and his family valued Johnson's company and conversation, and were not put off by his appearance and mannerisms. Mrs. Porter said to her daughter, after first meeting Johnson, "That is the most sensible man I ever met." From the Porters, Johnson gained renewed self-confidence, and largely emerged from his depressed state. After the death of Henry Porter, his wife Elizabeth ("Tetty", as Johnson came to call her) encouraged Johnson into a closer friendship, and in 1735 they were married. She was 20 years older than he, and brought to the marriage a dowry of over 600 pounds. In those days the interest alone on such a sum would have been almost enough for the couple to live on. There is every indication that it was a love match on both sides. On Tetty's side, the love was reinfoced by the perception of future greatness. On Johnson's side, the love was reinforced by gratitude toward the woman whose approval and acceptance had given him back his sanity and self-respect. The newly-married Johnson undertook to open a private school, Edial Hall. One of his first students was David Garrick, who became a lifelong friend and was later known as the foremost actor of his day. The school closed a little over a year later, having failed to attract enough pupils. Johnson had invested most of his wife's dowry in it, hoping to multiply her capital. Instead, he lost nearly all of it, leaving them desperately طفولة كارثية، ولادة صعبة ، مربية، ومرض صعب للغاية ، إعاقة في الأذن والعين والوجه، ثم موت الوالد وعمره 22 سنة. طفولة كارثية ويتم اجتماعي وموت الأب في سن 22 . |
Immanuel Kant - Immanuel Kant was an 18th-century philosopher from Russia. He has been considered one of the most influential thinkers of all time in Europe. Kant brought forth a unique theory of perception and thought deeply about life. Many regard Kant as a genius of his time. = ولد إمانويل كانط في 1724 في كونغسبرغ عاصمة روسيا ذلك الوقت، هي اليوم كيلننغراد في روسيا. كان الرابع من بين أحد عشر ولدا (أربعة منهم بلغوا سن الرشد). عمد واسمه "Emanuel" وغير اسمه إلى "Immanuel" بعد تعلمه العبرية. في حياته كلها لم يسافر أبداولم يبتعد أكثر من مئة ميل عن كونغسبرغ. والده جوهان جورج كانط (1682-1746) كان صانع أطقم فرس في مدينة ميمل شرق بروسيا (الآن كليبدا في ليتوانيا). أمه، ريجينا رويتر (1697-1737) ولدت في نورمبرغ. جد كانط هاجر من أسكتلندا إلى شرق روسيا ولم يزل والده يملي اسم عائلتهم "Cant". في شبابه كان كانط طالبا قويا ولو كان ضعيف البنية. تربي في بيت تقوى (حركة تتبع اللوثرية) تشدد كانط بقوة على الإخلاص الديني والتواضع والتفسير الحرفي للكتاب المقدس. بالتالي تلقى كانط تعليما صارما ـ قاسيا وتأديبيا انضباطيا ـ يؤثر اللاتينية وتعليم الدين على الرياضيات والعلوم. لحسن حظ كانط الشاب كان فرانز شولتز قس/مربي العائلة ذهل لنضوج كانط المبكر وأقنع العائلة بإرساله إلى مدرسة في الكلية الفردركية حيث كان شولتز رئيسا. هناك قضى كانط ثمان سنوات—ستة أيام أسبوعيا من السابعة صباحا حتى الرابعة مساء—يدرس اللاتينية اليونانية العبرية الفرنسية والرياضيات واللاهوت. بعد تخرجه ثانيا على صفه كان كانط ابن السادسة عشرة سجل في جامعة كونغسبرغ حيث كانت اهتماماته بالفلسفة والعلم اْوقدت البروفسور الخبير مارتن كنوتزن. قضى كانط سبع سنوات في الجامعة لكنه لم يتخرج بسبب ضائقة مالية: توفيت والدته في 1737 وتوفي والده في 1746. ليدعم نفسه كان عليه ترك الكلية ويخدم كمعلم خاص لأطفال الأسر الثرية قريبا من كونغسبرغ. أثناء هذه السنوات كرس وقت فراغه الطويل في الدراسة الذاتية وكتابة أطروحة. في 1755 عاد إلى الجامعة ودافع بنجاح عن الأطروحة وأعطي وظيفة برفاتدوزنت (ملحق مساعد أستاذ) مرتبة متدنية بقليل من البرستيج وبلا راتب إلا رسوم الطلاب. في هذه السنوات المبكرة كان يدرس قرابة ثمانية وعشرين ساعة في الأسبوع في مجموعة واسعة من الموضوعات ضمنها الفلسفة علم أصول التربية/التدريس الرياضيات الفيزياء العلوم الاجتماعية علم المعادن ومفضله الجغرافيا الفيزيائية. بعد فصول كان يستمتع بقراءة الجرائد مع القهوة. في المساء كان يلعب الورق والبلياردو وغالبا يصل بيته بعد منتصف الليل سكرانا كأقل ما يقال. أرغمته الظروف على العيش ببساطة في شقة مفروشة فقط بسرير وطاولة وكرسي، ما عدا صورة ظلية لجان جاك روسو كانت الجدران عارية. ليضيف إلى مدخوله الضئيل عمل كمساعد أمين مكتبة في القلعة الملكية. == Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in Königsberg, the capital of Prussia at that time, today the city of Kaliningrad in the Russian exclave of Kaliningrad Oblast. He was the fourth of nine children (four of them reached adulthood). Baptized 'Emanuel', he changed his name to 'Immanuel'[6] after learning Hebrew. In his entire life, he never traveled more than ten miles from Königsberg.[7] His father, Johann Georg Kant (1682–1746), was a German harnessmaker from Memel, at the time Prussia's most northeastern city (now Klaipėda, Lithuania). His mother, Regina Dorothea Reuter (1697–1737), was born in Nuremberg.[8] Kant's paternal grandfather had emigrated from Scotland to East Prussia, and his father still spelled their family name "Cant".[9] In his youth, Kant was a solid, albeit unspectacular, student. He was brought up in a Pietist household that stressed intense religious devotion, personal humility, and a literal interpretation of the Bible. Kant received a stern education – strict, punitive, and disciplinary – that preferred Latin and religious instruction over mathematics and science.[10] Despite being raised in a religious household and still maintaining a belief in God, he was skeptical of religion in later life and was an agnostic.[11][12][13][14][15][16] The common myths concerning Kant's personal mannerisms are enumerated, explained, and refuted in Goldthwait's introduction to his translation of Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime.[17] It is often held that Kant lived a very strict and predictable life, leading to the oft-repeated story that neighbors would set their clocks by his daily walks. He never married, but did not seem to lack a rewarding social life - he was a popular teacher and a modestly successful author even before starting on his major philosophical works. == يتيم الأم في سن الـ 3 عشرة ومات أبوه وعمره 22 سنة. |
Aristotle - Aristotle was a Greek philosopher, student of Plato and one who taught Alexander the Great. Aristotle became a great writer and is regarded as one of the most important and influential figures towards shaping Western philosophy. His works were the first to ever study “logic” and he had a profound influence on others during his time. == ولد ارسطو عام 384 قبل الميلاد في مدينة (ستاغيرا) في شمال اليونان، وكان والده طبيبا مقربا من البلاط المقدوني، وقد حافظ ارسطو وتلاميذه من بعده على هذا التقارب. وقد كان لوالده ثأير كبير عليه لدخوله مجال التشريح ودراسة الكائنات الحية التي منحته القدرة على دقة الملاحظة والتحليل. وفي عام 367 رحل ارسطو إلى اثينا للالتحاق بمعهد افلاطون، كطالب في البداية، وكمدرس فيما بعد. وكان افلاطون قد جمع حوله مجموعة من الرجال المتفوقين في مختلف المجالات العلمية من طب وبيولوجيا ورياضيات وفلك. ولم يكن يجمع بينهم رابط عقائدي سوى رغبتهم في إثرا وتنظيم المعارف الإنسانية، وإقامتها على قواعد نظرية راسخة، ثم نشرها في مختلف الاتجاهات، وكان هذا هو التوجه المعلن لتعاليم وأعمال ارسطو. وكان من برامج معهد افلاطون أيضا تدريب الشباب للقيام بالمهن السياسية، وتقديم النصائح والمشورة للحكام، ولذا فقد انضم ارسطو عام 347 إلى بلاط الملك هرمياس، ومن ثم، وفي عام 343 دخل في خدمة الملك فيليب الثاني إمبراطور مقدونيا حيث أصبح مؤدبا لابنه الاسكندر الكبير. وبعد سبع سنوات عاد مرة أخرى إلى اثينا ليؤسس مدرسته الخاصة (الليسيوم) أو (المشائية) وسميت كذلك نسبة للممرات أو أماكن المشاة المسقوفة التي كان الطلاب وأساتذتهم يتحاورون فيها وهم يمشون، كما تسمى اليوم جماعات الضغط السياسية في الكونغرس الأمريكي بـ (الوبي) نسبة إلى لوبي أو ردهة مبنى الكونغرس في واشنطن. وقد خالفت (المشائية) تقاليد (اكاديمية) افلاطون بتوسيع المجالات العلمية التي كانت تناقشها واعطت أهمية كبرى لتدريس الطبيعيات. وبعد وفاة الاسكندر الكبير، بدأ الشعور بالكراهية يظهر ضد المقدونيين في أثينا، وقد أثر ذلك على نفسية ارسطو، وقد كان من الموالين للمقدونيين، مما جعله يتقاعد، ولم يمهله القدر طويلا حيث توفي بعد اقل من عام من وفاة الاسكندر، فكانت وفاته في عام 322 قبل الميلاد. َ وعلى الرغم من غزارة إنتاج ارسطو الفكري المتمثل في محاضراته وحواراته الكثيرة، إلا أنه لم يبق منها الا النذر اليسير، فقد ضاع معظمها، ولم يبق سوى بعض الأعمال التي كانت تدرس في مدرسته، والتي تم جمعها تحت اسم (المجموعة الارسطوطالية) بالإضافة إلى نسخة ممزقة من (الدستور الاثيني) الذي وضعه، وعدد من الرسائل والاشعار ومن ضمنها مرثية في افلاطون == Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose," was born in Stageira, Chalcidice, in 384 BC, about 55 km (34 mi) east of modern-day Thessaloniki.[5] His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was trained and educated as a member of the aristocracy. At about the age of eighteen, he went to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. Aristotle remained at the academy for nearly twenty years before quitting Athens in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure reports that he was disappointed with the direction the academy took after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus upon his death, although it is possible that he feared anti-Macedonian sentiments and left before Plato had died.[6] He then traveled with Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. While in Asia, Aristotle traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Hermias's adoptive daughter (or niece) Pythias. She bore him a daughter, whom they named Pythias. Soon after Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC.[7] Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander.[citation needed] Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and his attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'.[8] By 335 BC he had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stageira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. According to the Suda, he also had an eromenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.[9] It is during this period in Athens from 335 to 323 BC when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.[7] Aristotle wrote many dialogues, only fragments of which survived. The works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication, as they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) and Poetics. Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, economics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge. It has been suggested that Aristotle was probably the last person to know everything there was to be known in his own time.[10] Near the end of Alexander's life, Alexander began to suspect plots against himself, and threatened Aristotle in letters. Aristotle had made no secret of his contempt for Alexander's pretense of divinity, and the king had executed Aristotle's grandnephew Callisthenes as a traitor. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but there is little evidence for this.[11] Upon Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens once again flared. Eurymedon the hierophant denounced Aristotle for not holding the gods in honor. Aristotle fled the city to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, explaining, "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy,"[12][13] a reference to Athens's prior trial and execution of Socrates. He died in Euboea of natural causes within the year (in 322 BC). Aristotle named chief executor his student Antipater and left a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.[14] == ارسطو ولد في عام 384 قبل الميلاد. ووالده مات في عام 375 قبل الميلاد. Nicomachus (Greek: Νικόμαχος), lived c. 375 BC, was the father of Aristotle. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicomac...r_of_Aristotle) يتيم الاب وعمره 9 سنوات. |
Pablo Picasso - Though Picasso may not have been an amazing scientist, his revolutionary mind forever changed the way people looked at art. He was a master drawer, painter, and sculptor. He founded “cubism” – an art style which became a huge movement in the 20th century. Pablo Picasso’s unique perception, which he expressed through his art, caused many people to view reality from a different perspective. == ولد بابلو بيكاسو عام 1881 بمدينة ملقة في جنوب إسبانيا لأسرة متوسطة الحال، وكان بابلو هو الطفل الأول فيها، كانت أمه تدعى ماريا بيكاسو (وهو الاسم الذي اشتهر به بابلو فيما بعد)، أما والده فهو الفنان خوسيه رويز الذي كان يعمل أستاذاً للرسم والتصوير في إحدى مدارس الرسم وكذلك كان أميناً للمتحف المحلى، وقد تخصص في رسم الطيور والطبيعة، وكان أجداد رويز من الطبقة الأرستقراطية إلى حد ما. أظهر بابلو شغفه ومهارته في الرسم منذ سن مبكرة، وكانت أمه تقول أن من أولى الكلمات التي نطقها بابلو كانت تعنى "قلم رصاص". في السابعة من عمره تلقى بابلو على يد والده تدريباً رسمياً في الرسم والتصوير الزيتى، وكان رويز فناناً تقليدياً وأستاذاً أكاديمياً مما جعله يعتقد أن التدريب المثالى يعتمد على النسخ المنظبط، ورسم أجساد بشرية من نماذج حية. وهكذا أصبح بابلو منشغلاً بالرسم على حساب دراسته. عام 1891 انتقلت العائلة إلى لاكورونيا حيث أصبح الأب أستاذاً بكلية الفنون الجميلة، ومكثوا فيها أربعة أعوام تقريباً. وفى إحدى المرات قام بابلو وهو في سن الثالثة عشرة بإتمام رسم أحد السكيتشات التي لم يكن والده قد انتهى منها بعد وقد كانت اللوحة لحمامة، وحينما تفحص الأب تقنية إبنه في الرسم شعر إن إبنه قد تفوق عليه، وأعلن وقتها التخلى عن الرسم رغم وجود لوحات له في وقت لاحق. وفى عام 1895 تعرض بابلو لصدمة شديدة بعد وفاة شقيقته الصغرى ذات السبع سنوات بعد إصابتها بمرض الدفتيريا، وبعد وفاتها انتقلت العائلة مرة أخرى إلى برشلونة حيث عمل الأب هناك أستاذاً بأكاديمية الفنون الجميلة، وبدأ بابلو في الازدهار من جديد مع إبقاءه على الحزن والحنين إلى الوطن الحقيقى. أقنع الأب المسؤولين في الأكاديمية بالسماح لإبنه بالتقدم في امتحان القبول للمستوى المتقدم، وكانت هذه الامتحانات تستغرق في الغالب شهراً إلا أن بيكاسو أنجزها في أسبوع واحد، الأمر الذي حاز إعجاب لجنة التحكيم ببيكاسو الذي كان في الثالثة عشرة من عمره وقتها. وكان بيكاسو يفتقر للانضباط إلا أنه استطاع أن يكوّن العديد من الصداقات التي أثّرت في حياته في وقتٍ لاحق. قام والده بتأجير حجرة صغيره له بجوار المنزل ليستطيع فيها بيكاسو العمل بمفرده، وكان والده يقوم بزيارته عدة مرات في اليوم وتفحّص رسوماته، والتناقش معه حول بعض الأمور أحياناً. بعدها قرر والد بيكاسو وعمه إرساله إلى أكاديمية مدريد الملكية في سان فيرناندو، وهى أهم أكاديمية للرسم في البلاد. في السادسة عشرة من عمره، بدأ بيكاسو في المكوث في المدينة على نفقته للمرة الأولى إلا أنه وبعد تسجيله في الأكاديمية بدأ يكره النظام الرسمى في التعليم وبدأ في ترك المحاضرات. وعلى الرغم من أن مدريد كان لديها العديد من عوامل الجذب، مثل متحف البرادو الذي يضم أعمالاً لفيلاسكيز دييغو، غويا فرانسسيكو، وسورباران فرانشسكو إلا أن بيكاسو أعجب خاصةً بأعمال الفنان إل غريكو (يونانى الأصل) حيث الألوان اللافتة، والأطراف الممدودة، والملامح الغامضة، والتي تأثر بها بيكاسو وظهرت في أعماله فيما بعده. == طفولة كارثية بسبب موت اخته الصغيرة. Picasso was baptized Pablo Diego José Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno María de los Remedios Crispiniano de la Santísima Trinidad, a series of names honoring various saints and relatives.[8] Added to these were Ruiz and Picasso, for his father and mother, respectively, as per Spanish law. Born in the city of Málaga in the Andalusian region of Spain, he was the first child of Don José Ruiz y Blasco (1838–1913) and María Picasso y López.[9] Picasso’s family was middle-class. His father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts and a curator of a local museum. Ruiz’s ancestors were minor aristocrats. Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were "piz, piz", a shortening of lápiz, the Spanish word for "pencil".[10] From the age of seven, Picasso received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was a traditional, academic artist and instructor who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters, and drawing the human body from plaster casts and live models. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork. The family moved to A Coruña in 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. They stayed almost four years. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his unfinished sketch of a pigeon. Observing the precision of his son’s technique, an apocryphal story relates, Ruiz felt that the thirteen-year-old Picasso had surpassed him, and vowed to give up painting,[11] though paintings by him exist from later years. In 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his seven-year-old sister, Conchita, died of diphtheria.[12] After her death, the family moved to Barcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home.[13] Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, and the impressed jury admitted him, at just 13. The student lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented him a small room close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day, judging his drawings. The two argued frequently. Picasso’s father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrid’s Royal Academy of San Fernando, the country's foremost art school.[13] At age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and quit attending classes soon after enrollment. Madrid, however, held many other attractions. The Prado housed paintings by Diego Velázquez, Francisco Goya, and Francisco Zurbarán. Picasso especially admired the works of El Greco; elements like the elongated limbs, arresting colors, and mystical visages are echoed in his later work صدم بموت اخته ذات السبع سنوات عندما كان في سن الرابعة عشرة، لا يعرف متى ماتت والدته. |
Niles Bohr Early years</SPAN>- Niels Bohr was a phenomenal physicist and a highly advanced thinker. He invented the Bohr Model which is regarded as a huge contribution to atomic physics. Bohr was heavily involved with post World War II scientific issues and carried a great head on his shoulders. == Niels Henrik David Bohr (Danish pronunciation: [ˈnels ˈboɐ̯ˀ]; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962)[1] was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum mechanics, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922.[2] Bohr mentored and collaborated with many of the top physicists of the century at his institute in Copenhagen. He was part of the British team of physicists working on the Manhattan Project. Bohr married Margrethe Nørlund in 1912, and one of their sons, Aage Bohr, grew up to be an important physicist who in 1975 also received the Nobel Prize. Bohr has been described as one of the most influential scientists of the 20th century. Bohr was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1885. His father, Christian Bohr, was professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen (it is his name which is given to the Bohr shift or Bohr effect), while his mother, Ellen Adler Bohr, came from a wealthy Jewish family prominent in Danish banking and parliamentary circles (in 1891, Bohr was baptized a Lutheran, his father's religion). Despite having a religious background, he later became an atheist.[5][6] His brother was Harald Bohr, a mathematician and Olympic footballer who played on the Danish national team. Niels Bohr was a passionate footballer as well, and the two brothers played a number of matches for the Copenhagen-based Akademisk Boldklub, with Niels in goal.[7][8] In 1903, Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate at Copenhagen University, initially studying philosophy and mathematics. In 1905, prompted by a gold medal competition sponsored by the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, he conducted a series of experiments to examine the properties of surface tension, using his father's laboratory in the university, familiar to him from assisting there since childhood. His essay won the prize, and it was this success that decided Bohr to abandon philosophy and adopt physics. He continued as a graduate student at the University of Copenhagen, under the physicist Christian Christiansen, receiving his doctorate in 1911. As a post-doctoral student, Bohr first conducted experiments under J. J. Thomson, of Trinity College, Cambridge and Cavendish Laboratory. In 1912 he met and later joined Ernest Rutherford at Manchester University, where on and off he spent four fruitful years in association with the older physics professor. In 1916, Bohr returned permanently to the University of Copenhagen, where he was appointed to the Chair of Theoretical Physics, a position created especially for him. In 1918 he began efforts to establish the University Institute of Theoretical Physics, which he later directed. Earlier in 1910 Bohr had met Margrethe Nørlund, sister of the mathematician Niels Erik Nørlund.[10] They were married in Copenhagen in 1912.[11] Of their six sons, the oldest died in a boating accident and another died from childhood meningitis. The others went on to lead successful lives, including Aage Bohr, who became a very successful physicist and, like his father, was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1975. His other sons were Hans Henrik, a physician, Erik, a chemical engineer, and Ernest, a lawyer لا يعرف متى ماتت والدته فعليه نعتبره مجهول الطفولة. |
Thomas Jefferson - Thomas Jefferson was a very brilliant individual. He was the 3rd president of the United States, wrote The Declaration Of Independence, and was the most influential Founding Father for the U.S. He influenced the republican party and was a horticulturist, statesman, architect, author and inventor. Jefferson was the founder of the University of Virginia and understood that slavery was unethical in a time when most everyone else thought it was proper. Thomas Jefferson was definitely had an exceptional brain. == Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 (April 2, 1743 O.S.) – July 4, 1826) was an American Founding Father, the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776) and the third President of the United States (1801–1809). At the beginning of the American Revolution, he served in the Continental Congress, representing Virginia and then served as a wartime Governor of Virginia (1779–1781). Just after the war ended, from mid-1784 Jefferson served as a diplomat, stationed in Paris. In May 1785, he became the United States Minister to France. Jefferson was the first United States Secretary of State (1790–1793) serving under President George Washington. With his close friend James Madison he organized the Democratic-Republican Party, and subsequently resigned from Washington's cabinet. Elected Vice President in 1796, when he came in second to John Adams of the Federalists, Jefferson opposed Adams and with Madison secretly wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, which attempted to nullify the Alien and Sedition Acts. The third of ten children, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743 (April 2, 1743 OS) at the family home in Shadwell, Goochland County, Virginia, now part of Albemarle County.[ His father was Peter Jefferson, (Peter Jefferson (February 29, 1708, - August 17, 1757) was the father of American President Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) a planter and surveyor. He was of possible Welsh descent, although this remains unclear. His mother was Jane Randolph, daughter of Isham Randolph, a ship's captain and sometime planter. Peter and Jane married in 1739.[7] Thomas Jefferson was little interested and indifferent to his ancestry and he only knew of the existence of his paternal grandfather.[6] Before the widower William Randolph, an old friend of Peter Jefferson, died in 1745, he appointed Peter as guardian to manage his Tuckahoe Plantation and care for his four children. That year the Jeffersons relocated to Tuckahoe, where they lived for the next seven years before returning to Shadwell in 1752. Peter Jefferson died in 1757 and the Jefferson estate was divided between Peter's two sons; Thomas and Randolph.[8] Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres (2,000 ha; 7.8 sq mi) of land, including Monticello and between 20 and 40 slaves. He took control of the property after he came of age at 21. == توماس جفرسون (13 أبريل1743 - 4 يوليو1826)، مفكر سياسي شهير في العصر المبكر للجمهورية الأمريكية. كان أحد الآباء المؤسسون للولايات المتحدة والمؤلف الرئيسي لإعلان الاستقلال الأمريكي (1776) وبعدا أصبح الرئيس الثالث للولايات المتحدة الأمريكية بالفترة من 1801 حتى 1809 وأحد أشهر رؤسائها. حياته</SPAN>ولد في ولاية فرجينيا لأسرة عملت في الزراعة. ودرس في معهد وليام وماري الذي تخرج منه العديد من الرؤساء الأميركيين، واشتغل بالتدريس في المعهد نفسه، ثم درس القانون. عرف بفصاحته، إلا أنه لم يكن خطيباً جماهيرياً بل كان يغلب عليه الصمت، فقد اشتهر في برلمان فرجينيا والمؤتمر القاري بكتابته عن المسألة الوطنية أكثر من أحاديثه حولها. ==إنتخب عضواً للكونغرس، وكتب أثناء ذلك مسودة إعلان الاستقلال التمهيدية، كما وضع قانوناً يضمن الحرية الدينية طبق سنة 1786. تقلد منصباً وزارياً في حكومة الرئيس واشنطن، إلا أنه استقال منه عام 1793 بسبب الخلاف مع ألكسندر هاملتون. نمت في عهده خلافات سياسية عنيفة، كما برز الحزبان الجديدان: حزب الفدراليين وحزب الديمقراطيين الجمهوريين المعروف حالياً باسم الحزب الديمقراطي. تنامى الخلاف السياسي عام 1800 إذ حاول الجمهوريون أن يعلنوا الرئيس ونائبه من حزبهم. وبرز أثناء تلك الأحداث خصماً للاستبداد، وكتب في ذلك رسالة مشهورة. ومما قام به في عهده أنه خفض من النفقات العسكرية والميزانية العامة، واتخذ إجراءات عديدة قلص بها الديون الأمريكية بمعدل الثلث. وسعى إلى الحفاظ على أميركا محايدة إبّان الحرب الفرنسية البريطانية، مما أدى بفرنسا وبريطانيا إلى تأييد سياسة بلاده المحايدة. قام جيفرسون بتأسيس جامعة فيرجينيا. توفي جيفرسون في الرابع من تموز سنة 1826. في نفس اليوم الذي توفي فيه جون ادمز الرئيس الأمريكي الذي سبقه. وهناك مقولة أبداها الرئيس الأمريكي عن الوظائف العامة المدنية في حديث له بتاريخ 12 تموز 1801 وهي "القلة يموتون ولا أحد يستقيل يتيم الاب في سن الـ 14 . |
Plato - Plato was a Greek philosopher that was taught by Socrates, but taught Aristotle. Along with Socrates and Aristotle, Plato helped lay the groundwork for Western philosophy. He was known to be a mathematician, great writer, and founded “the Academy” or “institute of higher education and learning,” in Athens. His works in philosophy, logic, and mathematics, were studied and used by many teachers after his time. Not only was Plato a revolutionary thinker, he was a genius of his time. == أفلاطون (باللاتينية: Plato / باليونانية: Πλάτων وتعني: واسع الأفق[1]) (427-428 ق.م \ 347-348 ق.م)[2] فيلسوف يوناني كلاسيكي، رياضياتي، كاتب عدد من الحوارات الفلسفية، ويعتبر مؤسس لأكاديمية أثينا التي هي أول معهد للتعليم العالي في العالم الغربي، معلمه سقراط وتلميذه أرسطو، وضع أفلاطون الأسس الأولى للفلسفة الغربية والعلوم.[3]، كان تلميذا لسقراط، وتأثر بأفكاره كما تأثر بإعدامه الظالم. سيرتهنبوغ أفلاطون وأسلوبه ككاتب واضح في محاوراته السقراطية (نحو ثلاثين محاورة) التي تتناول مواضيع فلسفية مختلفة: المعرفة، المنطق، اللغة، الرياضيات، الميتافيزقياء، الأخلاقوالسياسة [4]. لا يعرف أين ولد أفلاطون، كما لا يعرف تاريخ ولادته بالتحديد، ولكن من المؤكد أنه ينتمي إلى عائلةأرستقراطية كانت لها مكانة مؤثرة في المجتمعاليوناني. ==استنادا إلى المصادر القديمة، يعتقد معظم العلماء المحدثين بأن أفلاطون ولد في أثينا أو أجانيطس بين عامي 427 \ 428 ق.م. والد أفلاطون يدعى أريستون، طبقا لما ذكره المؤرخ ديوجين ليوشيس (200م) أن والد أفلاطون يرجع نسبه من أبيه إلى أحد ملوك أثينا يدعى Codrus ومن أمه إلى ملوك ميسينيا . والدة أفلاطون اسمها بينكتوني(Περικτιόνη) وهي من سلالة القانوني والشاعر اليوناني الأرستقراطي سولون[6]. بينكتوني أخت الطاغية اليوناني كريتياس: Κριτίας وابنة الطاغية كارميدوس : Χαρμίδης، كلاهما شخصيات بارزة من الطغاة الثلاثون أو الأوليغارشيون الذين جاءوا بعد انهيار أثينا عند الانتهاء من الحرب البيلوبونيسية (403-404 ق.م)[7]. أما أفلاطون نفسه، أريستون وبينكتوني والدا أفلاطون لديهم ثلاثة أبناء آخرين الأكبر وهو أدمينتوس والآخر قولاكن والأخيرة بوتون أم الفيلسوف سيوسيبس الذي تزعم أكاديمية أفلاطون بعد وفاته.[7]. وفقا لما ذكره أفلاطون في كتاب الجمهورية أن أدمينتوس وقولاكن يكبرونه سنا.[8] Plato (424/423 BC[a] – 348/347 BC) was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science.[3] In the words of A. N. Whitehead: The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings. I allude to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them.[4] Plato's sophistication as a writer is evident in his Socratic dialogues; thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters have been ascribed to him. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts.[5] Plato's dialogues have been used to teach a range of subjects, including philosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and mathematics. Plato is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy The exact place and time of Plato's birth are not known, but it is certain that he belonged to an aristocratic and influential family. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina[b] between 429 and 423 BC.[a] His father was Ariston. According to a disputed tradition, reported by Diogenes Laertius, Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus, and the king of Messenia, Melanthus. Plato's mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker and lyric poetSolon. Perictione was sister of Charmides and niece of Critias, both prominent figures of the Thirty Tyrants, the brief oligarchicregime, which followed on the collapse of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian War (404–403 BC). Besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children; these were two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus (the nephew and successor of Plato as head of his philosophical Academy).[ According to the Republic, Adeimantus and Glaucon were older than Plato. Nevertheless, in his Memorabilia, Xenophon presents Glaucon as younger than Plato. The traditional date of Plato's birth (428/427) is based on a dubious interpretation of Diogenes Laertius, who says, "When [Socrates] was gone, [Plato] joined Cratylus the Heracleitean and Hermogenes, who philosophized in the manner of Parmenides. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, [Plato] went to Euclides in Megara." As Debra Nails argues, "The text itself gives no reason to infer that Plato left immediately for Megara and implies the very opposite." In his Seventh Letter Plato notes that his coming of age coincided with the taking of power by the Thirty, remarking, "But a youth under the age of twenty made himself a laughingstock if he attempted to enter the political arena." Thus Nails dates Plato's birth to 424/423. According to some accounts, Ariston tried to force his attentions on Perictione, but failed in his purpose; then the godApollo appeared to him in a vision, and as a result, Ariston left Perictione unmolested. Another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping: an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse philosophy. Ariston appears to have died in Plato's childhood, although the precise dating of his death is difficult. Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mother's brother, who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, the leader of the democratic faction in Athens. Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty. Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes' second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato, who appears in Parmenides. In contrast to his reticence about himself, Plato often introduced his distinguished relatives into his dialogues, or referred to them with some precision: Charmides has a dialogue named after him; Critias speaks in both Charmides and Protagoras; and Adeimantus and Glaucon take prominent parts in the Republic.[20] These and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct Plato's family tree. According to Burnet, "the opening scene of the Charmides is a glorification of the whole [family] connection ... Plato's dialogues are not only a memorial to Socrates, but also the happier days of his own family." يتيم الأب في الطفولة وأمه تزوجت خالها بعد موت والده وأنجبت له أخ غير شقيق. |
Winston Churchill Family and early life– Winston Churchill was a rightfully famous British politician during World War II. He is well-known for his abilities as a great leader, speaker, officer in the British Army, a historical writer, and an artist. Churchill became a hero of his time and is considered one of the most intelligent men of his time. == Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, 30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British Conservative politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. Widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century, he served as Prime Minister twice (1940–45 and 1951–55). A noted statesman and orator, Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian, a writer, and an artist. He is the only British prime minister to have received the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made an Honorary Citizen of the United States. Churchill was born into the aristocratic family of the Dukes of Marlborough. His father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer; his mother, Jennie Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young army officer, he saw action in British India, the Sudan, and the Second Boer War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns. At the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, and First Lord of the Admiralty as part of the AsquithLiberal government. During the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active army service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, and Secretary of State for Air. After the War, Churchill served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Conservative (Baldwin) government of 1924–29, controversially returning the pound sterling in 1925 to the gold standard at its pre-war parity, a move widely seen as creating deflationary pressure on the UK economy. Also controversial was his opposition to increased home rule for India and his resistance to the 1936 abdication of Edward VIII. Out of office and politically "in the wilderness" during the 1930s, Churchill took the lead in warning about Nazi Germany and in campaigning for rearmament. On the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister. His steadfast refusal to consider defeat, surrender, or a compromise peace helped inspire British resistance, especially during the difficult early days of the War when Britain stood alone in its active opposition to Adolf Hitler. Churchill was particularly noted for his speeches and radio broadcasts, which helped inspire the British people. He led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured. After the Conservative Party lost the 1945 election, he became Leader of the Opposition. In 1951, he again became Prime Minister, before retiring in 1955. Upon his death, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral, which saw one of the largest assemblies of world statesmen in history.[1] Named the Greatest Briton of all time in a 2002 poll, Churchill is widely regarded as being among the most influential people in British history. Born into the aristocratic family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father, used the surname "Churchill" in public life. His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough, to highlight his descent from John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Speech impedimentWinston's father, Lord Randolph Churchill, (Lord Randolph Henry Spencer-Churchill PC (13 February 1849 – 24 January 1895 ) the third son of John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough, was a politician; and his mother, Lady Randolph Churchill (née Jennie Jerome) was the daughter of American millionaire Leonard Jerome. Winston was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire. From age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy and employed Churchill's father as his private secretary. Churchill's brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland. It has been claimed that the young Winston first developed his fascination with military matters from watching the many parades pass by the Vice Regal Lodge (now Áras an Uachtaráin, the official residence of the President of Ireland).[5][6] Churchill's earliest exposure to education occurred in Dublin, where a governess tried teaching him reading, writing, and arithmetic (his first reading book was called 'Reading Without Tears'). With limited contact with his parents, Churchill became very close to his nanny, 'Mrs' Elizabeth Anne Everest, whom he called 'Old Woom'. She served as his confidante, nurse, and mother substitute.[7] The two spent many happy hours playing in the Phoenix Park.[8][9] Independent and rebellious by nature, Churchill generally had a poor academic record in school, for which he was punished.[10] He was educated at three independent schools: St. George's School, Ascot, Berkshire; Brunswick School in Hove, near Brighton (the school has since been renamed Stoke Brunswick School and relocated to Ashurst Wood in West Sussex); and at Harrow School from 17 April 1888. Within weeks of his arrival at Harrow, Churchill had joined the Harrow Rifle Corps.[11] Churchill was rarely visited by his mother, and wrote letters begging her either to come to the school or to allow him to come home. His relationship with his father was distant; he once remarked that they barely spoke to one another.[12] His father died on 24 January 1895, aged 45, leaving Churchill with the conviction that he too would die young and so should be quick about making his mark on the world.[13] Many authors writing in the 1920s and 1930s, before sound recording became common, mentioned Churchill's stutter in terms such as 'severe' or 'agonising' and Churchill described himself as having a "speech impediment" which he worked to overcome. His dentures were specially designed to aid his speech (Demosthenes' pebbles). After many years of public speeches carefully prepared not only to inspire, but also to avoid hesitations, he could finally state, "My impediment is no hindrance". The Churchill Centre, however, flatly denies the claim that Churchill stuttered, while confirming that he did have difficulty pronouncing the letter S and spoke with a lisp as did his father. يتيم الاب في سن الحادي والعشرين. |
Benjamin Franklin Ancestry Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the U.S., an author, and a printer. He was also a great politician, inventor, and scientist. Benjamin Franklin’s scientific contributions have shaped physics and the field of electricity. He invented the lightning rod, bifocals, the Franklin stove, the odometer, and the glass harmonica. Franklin created the first public lending library in the United States and first fire department in the city of Pennsylvania. Ben Franklin was a true genius of his time. == Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706 [O.S. January 6, 1705] – April 17, 1790) was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. A noted polymath, Franklin was a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, postmaster, scientist, musician, inventor, satirist, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat. As a scientist, he was a major figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity. He invented the lightning rod, bifocals, the Franklin stove, a carriage odometer, and the glass 'armonica' He facilitated many civic organizations, including a fire department and a university.Franklin earned the title of "The First American" for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity; as an author and spokesman in London for several colonies, then as the first United States Ambassador to France, he exemplified the emerging American nation. Franklin was foundational in defining the American ethos as a marriage of the practical values of thrift, hard work, education, community spirit, self-governing institutions, and opposition to authoritarianism both political and religious, with the scientific and tolerant values of the Enlightenment. In the words of historian Henry Steele Commager, "In a Franklin could be merged the virtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat." To Walter Isaacson, this makes Franklin "the most accomplished American of his age and the most influential in inventing the type of society America would become." Franklin, always proud of his working class roots, became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies. He was also partners with William Goddard and Joseph Galloway the three of whom published the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper that was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the British monarchy in the American colonies. He became wealthy publishing Poor Richard's Almanack and The Pennsylvania Gazette. Franklin gained international renown as a scientist for his famous experiments in electricity and for his many inventions, especially the lightning rod. He played a major role in establishing the University of Pennsylvania and was elected the first president of the American Philosophical Society. Franklin became a national hero in America when he spearheaded the effort to have Parliament repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a major figure in the development of positive Franco-American relations. For many years he was the British postmaster for the colonies, which enabled him to set up the first national communications network. He was active in community affairs, colonial and state politics, as well as national and international affairs. From 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of Pennsylvania. Toward the end of his life, he freed his slaves and became one of the most prominent abolitionists. His colorful life and legacy of scientific and political achievement, and status as one of America's most influential Founding Fathers, have seen Franklin honored on coinage and money; warships; the names of many towns, counties, educational institutions, namesakes, and companies; and more than two centuries after his death, countless cultural references. Franklin's father, Josiah Franklin ((December 23, 1657 - January 16, 1745) was a tallow chandler, a soap-maker and a candle-maker. Josiah was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England, on December 23, 1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith-farmer, and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, on August 15, 1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher and his wife Mary Morrill, a former indentured servant. Early lifeJosiah Franklin had 17 children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683; they had three children before emigrating, and four after. After her death, Josiah was married to Abiah Folger on July 9, 1689, in the Old South Meeting House by Samuel Willard. Benjamin, their eighth child, was Josiah Franklin's 15th child and tenth and last son. Ben Franklin's mother, Abiah Folger, was born into a Puritan family among those that fled to Massachusetts to establish a purified Congregationalist Christianity in New England, when King Charles I of England began persecuting Puritans. They sailed for Boston in 1635. Her father was "the sort of rebel destined to transform colonial America"; as clerk of the court, he was jailed for disobeying the local magistrate in defense of middle-class shopkeepers and artisans in conflict with wealthy landowners. Ben Franklin followed in his grandfather's footsteps in his battles against the wealthy Penn family that owned the Pennsylvania Colony. </SPAN> Benjamin Franklin was born on Milk Street, in Boston, Massachusetts, on January 17, 1706 and baptized at Old South Meeting House. Josiah wanted Ben to attend school with the clergy, but only had enough money to send him to school for two years. He attended Boston Latin School but did not graduate; he continued his education through voracious reading. Although "his parents talked of the church as a career" for Franklin, his schooling ended when he was ten. He then worked for his father for a time and at 12 he became an apprentice to his brother James, a printer, who taught Ben the printing trade. When Ben was 15, James founded The New-England Courant, which was the first truly independent newspaper in the colonies. When denied the chance to write a letter to the paper for publication, Franklin adopted the pseudonym of "Mrs. Silence Dogood", a middle-aged widow. "Mrs. Dogood"'s letters were published, and became a subject of conversation around town. Neither James nor the Courant's readers were aware of the ruse, and James was unhappy with Ben when he discovered the popular correspondent was his younger brother. Franklin left his apprenticeship without permission, and in so doing became a fugitive. At age 17, Franklin ran away to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, seeking a new start in a new city. When he first arrived he worked in several printer shops around town. However, he was not satisfied by the immediate prospects. After a few months, while working in a printing house, Franklin was convinced by Pennsylvania Governor Sir William Keith to go to London, ostensibly to acquire the equipment necessary for establishing another newspaper in Philadelphia. Finding Keith's promises of backing a newspaper to be empty, Franklin worked as a typesetter in a printer's shop in what is now the Church of St Bartholomew-the-Great in the Smithfield area of London. Following this, he returned to Philadelphia in 1726 with the help of Thomas Denham, a merchant who employed Franklin as clerk, shopkeeper, and bookkeeper in his business. In 1727, Benjamin Franklin, then 21, created the Junto, a group of "like minded aspiring artisans and tradesmen who hoped to improve themselves while they improved their community." The Junto was a discussion group for issues of the day; it subsequently gave rise to many organizations in Philadelphia. Reading was a great pastime of the Junto, but books were rare and expensive. The members created a library, initially assembled from their own books. This did not suffice, however. Franklin then conceived the idea of a subscription library, which would pool the funds of the members to buy books for all to read. This was the birth of the Library Company of Philadelphia: its charter was composed by Franklin in 1731. In 1732, Franklin hired the first American librarian, Louis Timothee. Originally, the books were kept in the homes of the first librarians, but in 1739 the collection was moved to the second floor of the State House of Pennsylvania, now known as Independence Hall. In 1791, a new building was built specifically for the library. The Library Company is now a great scholarly and research library with 500,000 rare books, pamphlets, and broadsides, more than 160,000 manuscripts, and 75,000 graphic items. Upon Denham's death, Franklin returned to his former trade. In 1728, Franklin had set up a printing house in partnership with Hugh Meredith and the following year became the publisher of a newspaper called The Pennsylvania Gazette. The Gazette gave Franklin a forum for agitation about a variety of local reforms and initiatives through printed essays and observations. Over time, his commentary, and his adroit cultivation of a positive image as an industrious and intellectual young man, earned him a great deal of social respect. But even after Franklin had achieved fame as a scientist and statesman, he habitually signed his letters with the unpretentious 'B. Franklin, Printer.'[12] In 1731, Franklin was initiated into the local Masonic Lodge. He became Grand Master in 1734, indicating his rapid rise to prominence in Pennsylvania.[13][14] That same year, he edited and published the first Masonic book in the Americas, a reprint of James Anderson's Constitutions of the Free-Masons. Franklin remained a Freemason for the rest of his life. هو الابن السابع عشر لوالده الذي تزوجت مرتين وهو الاصغر. لم يتعلم في المدرسة الا سنوات محدودة وعمل مع اخية مبكرا لكنه ترك العلم وسافر وهو ما يزال في السابعة عشره. يتيم اجتماعي. |
Thomas Edison – Thomas Edison was a great inventor and businessman who created many appliances that have had profound influence on life around the world. A couple of his inventions are: the phonograph and a long lasting light bulb. Jefferson was also one of the first inventors to apply the idea of “mass production” to the invention process. Many give Jefferson credit with creating the first ever industrial research lab. He is considered one of the most gifted inventors ever and holds over 1,000 United States patents. Edison truly added his touch of genius to the scientific community. == Thomas Alva Edison (February 11, 1847 – October 18, 1931) was an American inventor and businessman. He developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and a long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. Dubbed "The Wizard of Menlo Park" (now Edison, New Jersey) by a newspaper reporter, he was one of the first inventors to apply the principles of mass production and large-scale teamwork to the process of invention, and because of that, he is often credited with the creation of the first industrial research laboratory.[1] Edison is the fourth most prolific inventor in history, holding 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as many patents in the United Kingdom, France, and Germany. He is credited with numerous inventions that contributed to mass communication and, in particular, telecommunications. These included a stock ticker, a mechanical vote recorder, a battery for an electric car, electrical power, recorded music and motion pictures. His advanced work in these fields was an outgrowth of his early career as a telegraph operator. Edison originated the concept and implementation of electric-power generation and distribution to homes, businesses, and factories – a crucial development in the modern industrialized world. His first power station was on Manhattan Island, New York. Early life Thomas Edison was born in Milan, Ohio, and grew up in Port Huron, Michigan. He was the seventh and last child of Samuel Ogden Edison, Jr. (1804–96, born in Marshalltown, Nova Scotia, Canada) and Nancy Matthews Elliott (1810–1871, born in Chenango County, New York).[ His father had to escape from Canada because he took part in the unsuccessful Mackenzie Rebellion of 1837.[] Edison reported being of Dutch ancestry. In school, the young Edison's mind often wandered, and his teacher, the Reverend Engle, was overheard calling him "addled". This ended Edison's three months of official schooling. Edison recalled later, "My mother was the making of me. She was so true, so sure of me; and I felt I had something to live for, someone I must not disappoint." His mother taught him at home. Much of his education came from reading R.G. Parker's School of Natural Philosophy and The Cooper Union. Edison developed hearing problems at an early age. The cause of his deafness has been attributed to a bout of scarlet fever during childhood and recurring untreated middle-ear infections. Around the middle of his career, Edison attributed the hearing impairment to being struck on the ears by a train conductor when his chemical laboratory in a boxcar caught fire and he was thrown off the train in Smiths Creek, Michigan, along with his apparatus and chemicals. In his later years, he modified the story to say the injury occurred when the conductor, in helping him onto a moving train, lifted him by the ears. Edison's family moved to Port Huron, Michigan after the railroad bypassed Milan in 1854 and business declined;[7] his life there was bittersweet. He sold candy and newspapers on trains running from Port Huron to Detroit, and he sold vegetables to supplement his income. He also studied qualitative analysis, and conducted chemical experiments on the train until an accident prohibited further work of the kind.[8] He obtained the exclusive right to sell newspapers on the road, and, with the aid of four assistants, he set in type and printed the Grand Trunk Herald, which he sold with his other papers.[8] This began Edison's long streak of entrepreneurial ventures, as he discovered his talents as a businessman. These talents eventually led him to found 14 companies, including General Electric, which is still one of the largest publicly traded companies in the world.[9][10] Telegrapher Edison became a telegraph operator after he saved three-year-old Jimmie MacKenzie from being struck by a runaway train. Jimmie's father, station agent J.U. MacKenzie of Mount Clemens, Michigan, was so grateful that he trained Edison as a telegraph operator. Edison's first telegraphy job away from Port Huron was at Stratford Junction, Ontario, on the Grand Trunk Railway.[11] In 1866, at the age of 19, Edison moved to Louisville, Kentucky, where, as an employee of Western Union, he worked the Associated Press bureau news wire. Edison requested the night shift, which allowed him plenty of time to spend at his two favorite pastimes—reading and experimenting. Eventually, the latter pre-occupation cost him his job. One night in 1867, he was working with a lead–acid battery when he spilled sulfuric acid onto the floor. It ran between the floorboards and onto his boss's desk below. The next morning Edison was fired.[12] One of his mentors during those early years was a fellow telegrapher and inventor named Franklin Leonard Pope, who allowed the impoverished youth to live and work in the basement of his Elizabeth, New Jersey home. Some of Edison's earliest inventions were related to telegraphy, including a stock ticker. His first patent was for the electric vote recorder, (U.S. Patent 90,646),[13] which was granted on June 1, 1869 == توماس ألفا إديسون (1847 – 1931م) مخترع أمريكي ولد في قرية ميلان بولاية أوهايو الأمريكية، لم يتعلم في مدارس الدولة إلا ثلاثة أشهر فقط، فقد وجده ناظر المدرسة طفلا بليدا متخلفا عقليا, ظهرت عبقريته في الاختراع وإقامة مشغله الخاص حيث أظهر سيرته المدهشة كمخترع، ومن اختراعاته مسجلات الاقتراع والبارق الطابع والهاتف الناقل الفحمي والميكرفون والفونوغراف واعظم اختراعاته المصباح الكهربائي. النشأة</SPAN> ولد توماس اديسون في ميلان في ولاية أوهايو في الولايات الأميريكية المتحدة في الحادي عشر من شهر شباط عام 1847م. قام مدرسه بطرده من المدرسة لأن تصرفاته كانت غريبة في صغره بالنسبة للآخرين وجنونيه، لكنها بالنسبة له كانت مغامرات جريئه وحماسيه. وليس بغريب ان ينظر له على أنه مغفل أو مجنون، فلقد قام ذات يوم في طفولته باجراء تجاربه على صديقه مايكل الذي لم يكن يقل له لا ابدا. كان يريد أن يكتشف طريقه للطيران وهو يسأل نفسه باستمرار, كيف يطير هذا الطير وانا لا اطير، لابد ان هناك طريقه لذلك، فأتى بصديقه مايكل واشربه نوع من الغازات يجعله اخف من الهواء حتى يتمكن من الارتفاع كالبالون تماما وامتلأ جوف مايكل من مركب الغازات الذي اعده اديسون الصغير, مما جعله يعاني من آلام حاده ويصرخ بحده, حتى جاء أب توماس وضربه بشده ورمى قواريره واغلق قبو المنزل - السرداب -. كان توماس دائم السؤال عن ظواهر الاشياء في الكون وكيفية عملها, وكان بطلا في التجارب مهما كلف الثمن فهو لايؤمن بشيئ حتى يجري عليه تجاربه. لم يكن حاله هذا يعجب مدرسيه فلقد كان يقضي وقته في الفصل في رسم الصور ومشاهدة من حوله والاستماع لما يقوله الاخرون, كان كثير الاسأله وخاصه غير المعقول منها, بينما لايميل إلى الاجابة عن الاسأله الدراسيه. وفي حالة ضجر من أحد مدرسيه منه قال المدرس لأديسون: انت فتى فاسد وليس مؤهلا للاستمرار في المدرسه بعد الآن, تألمت الام عند سماعها هذا الخبر وقالت للمدرس كل المشكله ان ابني أذكى منك. وعادت بتوماس للمنزل وبدأت بتثقيفه. فساعدته على مطالعة تاريخ اليونان والرومان وقاموس بورتون للعلوم. وعند سن 11 سنه درس تاريخ العالم الإنجليزي نيوتن والتاريخ الأمريكي والكتاب المقدس وروايات شكسبير. وكان يحب قراءة قصة حياة العالم الإيطالي غاليليو. بينما كان يكره الرياضيات ويقول عن نفسه في كبره: انني استطيع دائما ان استخدم المختصين في الرياضيات ولكن هؤلاء لايستطيعون استخدامي ابدا. ومن مراحل تعلمه في الصغر ان أبوه كان يمنحه مبلغ صغير من المال مقابل كل كتاب يقرأه, حتى بدأ توماس في قراءة كل الكتب التي تضمها مكتبة المدينة. ومن احب المؤلفين لديه الكاتب الفرنسي فيكتور هيغو صاحب رواية البؤساء الشهيره. ومن كثرة حبه لقصصه كان يكثر من قرائتها لصبيان القرية حتى لقبوه فيكتور هيغو اديسون. وفي عودته لأمه وتربيتها لتوماس يقول أحد جيرانهم: كنت أمر عدة مرات يوميا امام منزل آل اديسون, وكثيرا ماشاهدت الام وابنها توماس جالسين في الحديقه امام البيت, لقد كانت تخصص بعض الوقت يوميا لتدريس الفتى الصغير. ويقول توماس اديسون عن امه: لقد اكتشفت مبكرا في حياتي ان الام هي اطيب كائن على الإطلاق, لقد دافعت امي عني بقوه عندما وصفني استاذي بالفاسد, وفي تلك اللحظه عزمت ان اكون جديرا بثقتها, كانت شديدة الاخلاص واثقة بي كل الثقه, ولولا ايمانها بي لما أصبحت مخترعا ابدا. ومن الاحداث المؤثره في حياته هو وفاة امه سنة 1871م فأثرت الصدمه في نفسه تاثيرات عميقه, حتى كان يصعب عليه الحديث عنها دون أن تمتليئ عيناه بالدموع. ولم يخرج من تلك الاحزان إلا عندما تزوج من فتاة جميله كانت تعمل في مكتبه وذلك في سنة 1873م. ولقد تأثر اديسون بحياة المهندس الإنجليزي جيمس وات وكيف قادته ملاحظته إلى اكتشاف قوة البخار, حينما كان جالسا مع امه في المطبخ واذا بسحابة من البخار تدفع غطاء القدر - الجدر - إلى أعلى, وبذلك اكتشف قوة البخار. كما أن الفتى الصغير كان يمتهن مهنتين في صغيره بيع الخضار من محصول مزرعة والده وبيع الجرائد في القطارات, مما در عليه ربحا ممتازا. لقد كان اديسون فتى هادئا يستغرق فيما يعمل ويرتدي بذله رخيصة الثمن ولايشترى سواها حتى تبلى ولم يكن يمسح احذيته ونادرا مايسرح شعره. اثبت الفتى من خلالها لعائلته انه يستطيع شق طريقه في الحياة بنفسه, ولذا لم يعد أحد منهم يتدخل في شؤونه بالنسبة لبيع الجرائد. ولاحظ اديسون ان إقبال الناس على الجرايد أصبح جنونيا بعد اندلاع الحرب الأهلية الامريكيه سنة 1861م. ليرفع من سعر الجرائد ويكسب اموالا أكثر, ويشتري طابعه يضعها معه في رحلات القطار ويطبع عليها صحيفه خاصه به من صفحات قليله ويبيعها لحسابه وهي اسبوعيه اسمها (ذي وكيلي هيرالد) وكان يفتخر قائلا: اروج أول جريده في العالم تطبع في قطار. في عام 1862 وبينما اديسون في أحد غرف القطار مع قواريره الكيميائية وآلته الطابعه وجرائده حيث كان يعمل. حتى وقع اهتزاز شديد للقطار فوقعت القوارير الكيميائية واشتعلت النيران ليقوم الحارس باطفائها والتوقف بالقطار ورمي اديسون وادواته وطابعته على اقرب رصيف. ومن الاحداث المهمه في حياته اصابته بالصمم الجزئي وضعف السمع بسبب تلقي ضربات متعدده على اذنه في فترات حياته المختلفه. ويقول اديسون عن هذا: ان هذا الصمم الجزئي لهو نعمه من بعض النواحي, لأن الضوضاء الخارجيه لاتستطيع أن تشوش افكاري. ترك اديسون العمل في القطار وانكب على دراسات التلغراف وعن طريقة عمله كان يقول لصديقه آدمس: ان علي ان اعمل الكثير والحياة قصيره ويجب أن استعجل. فكان يعمل 18 ساعه يوميا. وهذا نفس عدد الساعات التي كان يعملها بيل غيتس. وفي أحد الايام ومع العمل المضني وبينما كان يوصل بعض الاسلاك على إحدى البطاريات لاحدى تجاربه, إذ فجأه انفجر حمض النتريك من البطاريه ورش كل وجهه, ولقد قال اديسون عن هذا الحادث المؤثر: لقد شعرت بألم عظيم, وخيل الي انني احرقت حيا، واسرعت إلى الماء اصبه على وجهي دون فائده، ورأيت وجهي في المرآة اسود قبيح. لأمكث اسبوعين لااخرج من غرفتي, ولوكانت عيناي مفتوحتان لأصبحت اعمي, وبعد مده نما جلدي من جديد وزالت آثار الحروق. == طرد من المدرسة وهو صغير لاعتقاد مدرسيه انه غبي . فقد السمع بسبب ارتفاع في درجة الحرارة. ماتت امه التي اعتنت به وعملته في المنزل وهو في سن 24 . يتيم اجتماعي وفاقد السمع وماتت امه وعمره 24 سنة. |
Daniel Tammet - Daniel Tammet is a high-functioning autistic savant. He has been gifted with a knack for mathematics, language learning, and above average memorization skills. He was featured on a discovery channel special that tested his abilities and showed his ability to learn arguably the toughest language, Icelandic, in less than 7 days to appear in an interview. Daniel has an incredible brain and was gifted with an above-average intellect. == Daniel Tammet (born on 31 January 1979) is a British writer and autistic savant. His best selling 2006 memoir, Born on a Blue Day, about his life with high-functioning autism and savant syndrome, was named a "Best Book for Young Adults" in 2008 by the American Library Association.[1] Tammet's second book, Embracing the Wide Sky, was described as one of France's best selling books of 2009 by L'Express magazine in its March 2010 edition. Thinking in Numbers, Tammet's third book, was published by Hodder in the UK on 16 August 2012. Tammet's books have been published in 20 languages. Biography Early life Tammet was born Daniel Paul Corne and raised in East London, England, the eldest of nine children. He suffered epileptic seizures as a young child, which he subsequently outgrew following medical treatment. Savantism</SPAN>At age twenty-five, he was diagnosed with Asperger syndrome by Professor Simon Baron-Cohen of the Autism (Spectrum) Research Centre at Cambridge University.[5] Tammet is one of fewer than a hundred "prodigious savants" according to Dr. Darold Treffert, the world's leading researcher in the study of savant syndrome.[ Tammet finished school with nine GCSEs (an 'A*' in History, 'A' grades in English, English Literature, French, and German, two 'B' grades in the Sciences, a 'B' in Maths, and a 'C' in Woodwork)[7] and three A-Levels in History, French and German, all at grade 'B'.[8] Preferring travel to university, Tammet taught English for a year in Lithuania. Tammet twice participated in the World Memory Championships in London under his birth name, placing 12th in 1999 and 4th in 2000. He changed his birth name by deed poll because "it didn't fit with the way he saw himself." In 2002 Tammet launched his website, Optimnem. The site offers language courses (currently French and Spanish) and has been an approved member of the U.K.'s National Grid for Learning since 2006.[7] Tammet was the subject of a documentary film entitled (in the UK) The Boy with the Incredible Brain, first broadcast on the British television station Channel 4 on 23 May 2005. Tammet has been "studied repeatedly" by researchers in Britain and the United States, and has been the subject of several peer-reviewed scientific papers. Professor Allan Snyder at the Australian National University has said of Tammet: "Savants can't usually tell us how they do what they do. It just comes to them. Daniel can describe what he sees in his head. That's why he's exciting. He could be the 'Rosetta Stone'." Career</SPAN>In his mind, he says, each positive integer up to 10,000 has its own unique shape, colour, texture and feel. He has described his visual image of 289 as particularly ugly, 333 as particularly attractive, and pi as beautiful. The number 6 apparently has no distinct image yet what he describes as an almost small nothingness, opposite to the number 9 which he calls large and towering.[7][14] In his memoir, Tammet states experiencing a synaesthetic and emotional response for numbers and words.[15] Tammet holds the European record for reciting pi from memory to 22,514 digits in five hours and nine minutes on 14 March 2004. Tammet has reportedly learned 10 languages, including Romanian, Gaelic, Welsh, and Icelandic which he learned in a week for a TV documentary. Born on a Blue Day, Tammet's memoir of a life with Asperger's syndrome, received international media attention and critical praise. Booklist's Ray Olson stated that Tammet's autobiography was "as fascinating as Benjamin Franklin's and John Stuart Mill's" and that Tammet wrote "some of the clearest prose this side of Hemingway". Kirkus stated that the book "transcends the disability memoir genre". For his U.S. book tour, he appeared on several television and radio talk shows and specials, including 60 Minutes and Late Show with David Letterman.[7] In February 2007 Born on a Blue Day was serialised as BBC Radio 4's Book of the Week in the United Kingdom. Tammet's second book, Embracing the Wide Sky was published in 2009. Professor Allan Snyder, director of Sydney University's Centre for the Mind, called the work 'an extraordinary and monumental achievement'. Tammet argues that savant abilities are not "supernatural" but are "an outgrowth" of "natural, instinctive ways of thinking about numbers and words". He suggests that the brains of savants can, to some extent, be retrained, and that normal brains could be taught to develop some savant abilities == دانيال بول تاميت (بالإنكليزية: Daniel Paul Tammet) (ولد في 31 يناير 1979 في لندن، إنكلترا) هو نابغة بريطاني لديه قدرة فائقة في تعلم الرياضيات واللغات الطبيعية. هو أول تسعة أبناء لعائلة متوسطة الدخل تعيش في لندن. كان مصابا بالتوحد في صغره. في كتابه "مولود في يوم أزرق"، يصف تاميت كيف أثرت إصابته بالصرعوالمحاسةومتلازمة آسبرغر على سنوات طفولته. قدراته</SPAN> تاميت يملك الرقم القياسي الأوروبي لعد ثابت الرياضيات باي إلى 22,514 رقما عشريا في خمس ساعات وتسع دقائق،[1] كما أنه يستطيع التحدث بإحدى عشر لغة هي الإنكليزية، الفرنسية، الفنلندية، الألمانية، الإسبانية، الليتوانية، الرومانية، الإستونية، الآيسلندية، الويلزية، والإسبرانتو، وهو يقوم الآن بابتكار لغة مصطنعة جديدة تدعى منتي. حياته الشخصية</SPAN>تاميت يعيش مع صديقه مهندس البرمجيات نيل ميتشيل منذ عام 2001 في منزلهما في كنت ويديران معا شركة تعليم إلكتروني تدعى أوبتيمنم (Optimnem). تاميت سبق وأن ناقش العلاقة المثلية التي تربطه مع ميتشيل. كان مصابا بالتوحد في صغره. في كتابه "مولود في يوم أزرق"، يصف تاميت كيف أثرت إصابته بالصرع والمحاسة ومتلازمة آسبرغر على سنوات طفولته. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AbASOcqc1Ss اصيب في الطفولة بنوبات صرع كما انه شخص على انه مصاب بالتوحد ومتلازمة اسبرغر. |
William Shakespeare - William Shakespeare was a poet, playwright, and has been hailed “the greatest writer” in the English language and the worlds best dramatist. He has been deemed the national poet of England and his works include: nearly 40 plays, around 150 sonnets, and 2 long poems. Shakespeare’s plays have been translated into every language, and are performed more often than any other playwright. Shakespeare shed his genius-like thoughts through his complex storytelling. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, d 1601 an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden, d 1608 the daughter of an affluent landowning farmer.[7] He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual birthdate remains unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April, St George's Day. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholar's mistake, has proved appealing to biographers, since Shakespeare died 23 April 1616. He was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son.[10] Although no attendance records for the period survive, most biographers agree that Shakespeare was probably educated at the King's New School in Stratford, a free school chartered in 1553, about a quarter-mile from his home. Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era, but the grammar curriculum was standardised by royal decree throughout England, and the school would have provided an intensive education in Latin grammar based upon Latin classical authors. John Shakespeare's house, believed to be Shakespeare's birthplace, in Stratford-upon-Avon. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married the 26-year-old Anne Hathaway. The consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. ويليام شكسبير (1564 ـ 1616) كبير الشعراء الإنكليز. كان ممثلاً ومؤلفاً مسرحياً. سبر في مسرحياته أغوار النفس البشرية، وحلّلها في بناء متساوق جعلها أشبه شيء بالسيمفونيات الشعرية. من أشهر آثاره الكوميدية كوميديا الأخطاء (1592/1593) وتاجر البندقية (1596/1597). ومن أشهر آثاره التراجيدية روميو وجوليت (1594/1595)، ويوليوس قيصر (1599/1600) وهاملت (1600/1601)، وعطيل (1604/1605)، ومكبث (1605/1606)، والملك لير (1605/1606 أيضاً). حياته</SPAN>يعد شكسبير من أبرز الشخصيات في الأدب العالمي إن لم يكن أبرزها على الإطلاق. يصعب تحديد عبقريته بمعيار بعينه من معايير النقد الأدبي. وإن كانت حكمته التي وضعها على لسان شخصيات رواياته خالدة في كل زمان. هناك تكهنات وروايات عديدة عن حقيقة شخصيته التي يكتنفها الغموض والإبهام. وعن حياته التي لا يعرف عنها إلا القدر اليسير. والثابت أن أباه كان رجلاً له مكانته في المجتمع، وكانت أمه من عائلة ميسورة الحال. وقيل إنه بلغ حداً من التعليم، مكنه من التدريس في بلدته ستراتفورد – أون – آفون التي يوجد بها الآن مسرح يسمى باسمه، يقوم بالتمثيل على خشبته أكبر الممثلين المتخصصين في رواياته. ومن الثابت أيضاً أنه تزوج من آن هاثاواي، وأنجب منها ثلاثة أطفال، وفي 1588 انتقل إلى لندن وربط حياته بالمسرح هناك. وفي 1589 أخرجت أولى مسرحياته وهي أما مسرحية كوميديا الأخطاء أو الجزء الأول من مسرحية هنري السادس. وفي 1599 اشترك في إدارة مسرح جلوب الشهير. وقد كان شكسبير رجل عصره على الرغم من عالمية فنه إذ تأثر إلى حد بعيد بمعاصريه من كتاب المسرح مثل توماس كيدوكريستوفر مارلو، وخاطب مثلهم الذوق الشعبي في عصره وهو الذوق الذي كان يهوى المآسي التاريخية بما فيها من عنف ومشاهد دامية. كما كان يهوى المشاهد الهزلية ذات الطابع المكشوف التي كانت تتخلل المسرحيات التراجيدية لتخفف من حدة وقعها. غير أن شكسبير هذب القصص التي نقلها عن المؤرخ هوليتشد لتاريخ إنجلترا واسكتلندا كما هو الحال في مسرحيات ماكبث، والملك لير، وسمبلين، وريتشارد الثالث، وعن المؤرخ الروماني بلوتارك كما في مسرحية أنطونيو وكليوباترا. وأضاف إلى ذلك كله عمق تحليله للنفس البشرية، فضلاً عن شاعريته الفياضة في تصوير المواقف التاريخية والعاطفية الخالدة حتى جعل من المسرح الإنجليزي فناً عالمياً رفيعاً. ومن المتفق عليه بين معظم الباحثين والدارسين أن 38 من المسرحيات لا يشكل في نسبتها إليه، وأن مراحل إنتاجه الأدبي يمكن تقسيمها إلى مراحل أربع: أولها (1590 – 1594) وتحوى مجموعة من المسرحيات التاريخية منها كوميديا الأخطاء، وهنري السادس وتيتوس اندرونيكوس، والسيدان من فيرونا وجهد الحب الضائع والملك جون، وريتشارد الثالث، وترويض النمرة والأخيرتان ترجمتا إلى العربية، والثانية هي المرحلة الغنائية (1595 – 1600) وتشتمل على معظم قصائده الشهيرة وبعض مسرحياته الخفيفة مثل ريتشارد الثاني وحلم منتصف ليلة صيف وتاجر البندقية التي ترجمت جميعاً إلى العربية مع بعض روائعه الشهيرة مثل روميو وجوليت، وهنري الخامس، ويوليوس قيصر، وكما تهواه وقد ترجمت جميعاً إلى العربية. ومن مسرحيات هذه المرحلة كذلك زوجات وندسور المرحات وضجيج ولا طحن، أما المرحلة الثالثة (1600 – 1608) فهي أهم المراحل على الإطلاق، إذ تمثل نضوجه الفني، فقد كتب فيها أعظم مسرحياته التراجيدية مثل هاملت، وعطيل، والملك لير وماكبث وأنتوني وكليوباترا، وبركليز وكريولينس ودقة بدقة وقد ترجم معظمها إلى العربية. ومنها ما ترجم أكثر من مرة، ومنها ما بلغ عدد ترجماته العشرة مثل هاملت. ومن مسرحيات هذه المرحلة أيضاً تيمون الأثيني. وخير ما انتهى بخير. ثم تأتي المرحلة الرابعة (1609 – 1613) التي اختتم بها حياته الفنية وقد اشتملت على مسرحيات هنري الثامن، والعاصفة مما ترجم إلى العربية، وعلى مسرحيتي قصة الشتاء وسمبلين. وفي هذه المرحلة نجد العواصف النفسية العنيفة وقد خبت وتحولت في نفس الشاعر إلى نظرة تقبل ورضى وأمل وتأمل == نسب بعض النقاد المتقدمين مؤلفاته إلى آخرين منهم الفيلسوف فرانسيس بيكون، ومنهم أيرل أكسفورد السابع عشر. وقال آخرون إنه من أصل عربي وإن اسمه جاء تحريفاً لاسم الشيخ زبير.وكلها أقوال لم تثبت بالأدلة القاطعة والمقنعه ولم يقم عليها الدليل العلمي وإن كانت هناك بحوث كثيرة في هذا الصدد. ولقد اشترك كثير من كبار الشعراء في القرنين 18، 19 في جمع مسرحياته ونقدها وإن اختلفت وجهات النظر وتعددت أساليب النقد. ففي القرن 18 اعترض كتاب من أمثال جون درايدنوألكسندر بوب على ما اعتبروه إسراف شكسبير في الخيال والتعبير، أما شعراء القرن 19 من أمثال صامويل تايلر كولريدج فقد أعطوا الشاعر الكبير حق قدره. وكذلك الحال بالنسبة إلى نقاد القرن 20 من أمثال ت. س. إليوت ممن أكدوا عالمية فنه وخلود أدبه. هذا وقد كان لشكسبير أثره الكبير في آداب جميع الأمم على الإطلاق، وتأثر به جميع الكتاب والشعراء والأدباء في كل البلدان وفي كل العصور في القارة الأوروبية وفي الأمريكتين وفي غير ذلك من القارات في القرن 17، 18، 19، وفي غير ذلك من القرون. أما في الأدب العربي فقد تأثر به كثير من الأدباء، وترجمت معظم مسرحياته وقدمت في المسرح والسينما والإذاعة، وكان لإدارة الثقافة بجامعة الدول العربية في الأيام الأخيرة فضل القيام بترجمة جميع مؤلفاته تلك التي صدر منها حتى الآن 12 مسرحية، وهي بصدد إصدار باقي مسرحياته حسب ترتيبها التاريخي. هناك كثير من الجدل حوله وحول طفولته وشخصيته ولا يمكن الا اعتباره مجهول الطفولة رغم ان بعض المصادر تشير الى ان والديه عاشا الى سن متأخره. اي انه ليس يتيم حسب بعض المصادر. مجهول الطفولة. |
Kim Peek - Though Kim Peek is a savant, he has some exceptional brain abilities. He is lacking a functional corpus callosum (which makes it impossible for his right and left brain hemispheres to exchange information) and has a damaged cerebellum. Without a corpus callosum, some develop above average memory abilities. In Kim Peek’s case, he can read a new book in about 1 hour and manages to retain over 98% of the information within the book! Impressive. == Laurence Kim Peek (November 11, 1951 – December 19, 2009) was an Americansavant. Known as a "megasavant", he had an exceptional memory, but he also experienced social difficulties, possibly resulting from a developmental disability related to congenital brain abnormalities. He was the inspiration for the character of Raymond Babbitt, played by Dustin Hoffman in the movie Rain Man. Unlike Babbitt, Peek had FG syndrome. Early life</SPAN> Peek was born in Salt Lake City, Utah with macrocephaly, damage to the cerebellum, and agenesis of the corpus callosum, a condition in which the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain is missing; in Peek's case, secondary connectors such as the anterior commissure were also missing. There is speculation that his neurons made unusual connections due to the absence of a corpus callosum, which resulted in an increased memory capacity. According to Peek's father, Fran Peek, Kim was able to memorize things from the age of 16–20 months. He read books, memorized them, and then placed them upside down on the shelf to show that he had finished reading them, a practice he maintained. He could speed through a book in about an hour and remember almost everything he had read, memorizing vast amounts of information in subjects ranging from history and literature, geography and numbers to sports, music and dates. According to an article in The Times newspaper, he could accurately recall the contents of at least 12,000 books. Peek lived in Murray, Utah. Rain ManPeek did not walk until the age of four and then in a sidelong manner.[ He could not button up his shirt and had difficulty with other ordinary motor skills, presumably due to his damaged cerebellum, which normally coordinates motor activities. In psychological testing, Peek scored below average (87) on general IQ tests. In 1984, screenwriterBarry Morrow met Peek in Arlington, Texas; the result of the meeting was the 1988 movie Rain Man. The character of Raymond Babbitt, although inspired by Peek, was portrayed as having autism. Dustin Hoffman, who played Babbitt, met Peek and other savants to get an understanding of their nature and to play the role accurately and methodically. The movie caused a number of requests for appearances, which increased Peek's self-confidence. Barry Morrow gave Kim his Oscar statuette to carry with him and show at these appearances; it has since been referred to as the "Most Loved Oscar Statue" as it has been held by more people than any other. Kim also enjoyed approaching strangers and showing them his talent for calendar calculations by telling them on which day of the week they were born and what news items were on the front page of major newspapers. Peek also appeared on television. He travelled with his father, who took care of him and performed many motor tasks that Peek found difficult Kim : the Idiot Savant http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhcQG_KItZM اعاقة عقلية كبيرة تتمثل في عدم وجود اعصاب تربط بين فصي الدماغ. |
Ludwig van Beethoven - Beethoven was a German pianist and legendary musician. He was very influential in Western classical music and is thought of as the best composer of all time. Though Beethoven’s hearing began to cease in his early twenties, he was still able to create classical masterpieces. He was able to conduct, compose, and perform music even after he was completely deaf! Beethoven blessed the world with his musical genius and brilliant mind. == لودفيج فان بيتهوفن (بالألمانية: Ludwig van Beethoven) مؤلف موسيقي ألماني ولد في 1770 ورحل في 1827 كانت ولادته في مدينة بون. يعتبر من أبرز عباقرة الموسيقى في جميع العصور، وأبدع أعمالاً موسيقية خالدة. له الفضل الأعظم في تطوير الموسيقى الكلاسيكية. قدم أول عمل موسيقي وعمره 8 أعوام. حياتهتشمل مؤلفاته للأوركسترا تسـعة سيمفونيات وخمس مقطوعات موسيقية على البيانو ومقطوعة على الكمان. كما ألّف العديد من المقطوعات الموسيقية كمقدمات للأوبرا. بدأ بيتهوفن يفقد سمعه في الثلاثينيات من عمره إلا أن ذلك لم يؤثر على إنتاجه الذي ازداد في تلك الفترة وتميز بالإبداع. من أجمل أعماله السمفونية الخامسة والسادسة والتاسعة. وقد توفي في فيينا سنة 1827م. Ludwig van Beethoven شهدت مدينة بون الألمانية ميلاد الفنان العبقري لودفج فان بيتهوفن في 16 ديسمبر سنة 1770، وتم تعميده في 17 ديسمبر1770. ظهر تميزه الموسيقي منذ صغره، فنشرت أولى أعماله وهو في الثانية عشر من عمره سنة 1783 ميلادية. اتسعت شهرته كعازف بيانو في سن مبكرة، ثم زاد إنتاجه وذاع صيته كمؤلف موسيقى. عانى بيتهوفن كثيراً في حياته، عائلياً وصحياً، فبالرغم من أن أباه هو معلمه الأول الذي وجه اهتمامه للموسيقى ولقنه العزف على البيانو والكمان، إلا أنه لم يكن الأب المثالي، فقد كان مدمناً للكحول، كما أن والدته توفيت وهو في السابعة عشر من عمره بعد صراع طويل مع المرض، تاركة له مسؤولية العائلة. مما منعه من إتمام خطته والسفر إلى فيينا، عاصمة الموسيقى في ذلك العصر. فكان التأليف الموسيقي هو نوع من أنواع العلاج والتغلب على المشاكل بالنسبة لبيتهوفن. حياته في فيينا عاصمة الموسيقىفي 1789 ميلادية تحقق حلمه أخيراً، فقد أرسله حاكم بون إلى فيينا، وهناك تتلمذ على يد هايدن. ولكن بيتهوفن، صاحب الألحان واجه بعض الخلافات مع معلمه، وعندما سافر هايدن إلى لندن، تحول بيتهوفن إلى معلمين آخرين مثل ساليري وشينك وألبريشتبيرجر. وقد أسهمت كل هذه الدروس والاحتكاكات في تكوين شخصية بيتهوفن الفنية. وحاول أن يشق لنفسه طريق كعازف في عاصمة الموسيقى، وسرعان ما لقى مكانة كبرى خاصة في الأوساط الأرستقراطية. فقد حاز على إعجاب الأسرة الملكية وعومل كصديق أكثر منه مؤلفاً. بالرغم من ذلك فقد عاش ومات فقيراً، غناه هو أعماله الفنية المتميزة. صمم بيتهوفن والتحول الكبير في شخصيتهبدأت إصابة بيتهوفن بالصمم، فبدأ في الانسحاب من الأوساط الفنية تدريجياً، وأمضى حياته بلا زواج يرتبط بعدة علاقات عاطفية. إلا أنه لم يتوقف عن الإنتاج الفني، ولكن أعماله اتخذت اتجاه جديد. ومع ازدياد حالة الصمم التي أصابته، امتنع عن العزف في الحفلات العامة، وابتعد عن الحياة الاجتماعية واتجه للوحدة، وقلت مؤلفاته، وأصبحت أكثر تعقيداً. حتى أنه رد على انتقادات نقاده بأنه يعزف للأجيال القادمة. وبالفعل ما زالت أعماله حتى اليوم من أهم ما أنتجته الموسيقى الكلاسيكية العالمية. واكتسبت اثنان من السيمفونيات التي كتبها في صممه أكبر شعبية، وهما السيمفونية الخامسة والتاسعة. كما أنه أحدث الكثير من التغييرات في الموسيقى، وأدخل الغناء والكلمات في سيمفونيته التاسعة. فجاءت رسالته إلى العالم "كل البشر سيصبحون إخوة". == Ludwig van Beethoven (i/ˈlʊdvɪɡvænˈbeɪt.hoʊvən/; German: [ˈluːtvɪç fan ˈbeːt.hoːfən] (listen); baptized 17 December 1770[1] – 26 March 1827) was a German composer and pianist. A crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music, he remains one of the most famous and influential of all composers. His best known compositions include 9 symphonies, 5 concertos for piano, 32 piano sonatas, and 16 string quartets. He also composed other chamber music, choral works (including the celebrated Missa Solemnis), and songs. Born in Bonn, then the capital of the Electorate of Cologne and part of the Holy Roman Empire, Beethoven displayed his musical talents at an early age and was taught by his father Johann van Beethoven and Christian Gottlob Neefe. During his first 22 years in Bonn, Beethoven intended to study with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and befriended Joseph Haydn. Beethoven moved to Vienna in 1792 and began studying with Haydn, quickly gaining a reputation as a virtuoso pianist. He lived in Vienna until his death. During the late 18th century, his hearing began to deteriorate significantly, yet he continued to compose, conduct, and perform, even after becoming completely deaf. Beethoven was the grandson of a musician of Flemish origin named Lodewijk van Beethoven (1712–73) who moved at the age of twenty to Bonn.[ Lodewijk (Ludwig is the German cognate of Dutch Lodewijk) was employed as a basssinger at the court of the Elector of Cologne, eventually rising to become Kapellmeister (music director). Lodewijk had one son, Johann (1740–1792), who worked as a tenor in the same musical establishment, and gave lessons on piano and violin to supplement his income. Johann married Maria Magdalena Keverich in 1767; she was the daughter of Johann Heinrich Keverich, who had been the head chef at the court of the Archbishopric of Trier. Beethoven was born of this marriage in Bonn. There is no authentic record of the date of his birth; however, the registry of his baptism, in a Roman Catholic service at the Parish of St. Regius on 17 December 1770, survives. As children of that era were traditionally baptised the day after birth in the Catholic Rhine country, and it is known that Beethoven's family and his teacher Johann Albrechtsberger celebrated his birthday on 16 December, most scholars accept 16 December 1770 as Beethoven's date of birth. Of the seven children born to Johann van Beethoven, only Ludwig, the second-born, and two younger brothers survived infancy. Caspar Anton Carl was born on 8 April 1774, and Nikolaus Johann, the youngest, was born on 2 October 1776. Beethoven's first music teacher was his father. Although tradition has it that Johann van Beethoven was a harsh instructor, and that the child Beethoven, "made to stand at the keyboard, was often in tears," the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians claimed that no solid documentation supported this, and asserted that "speculation and myth-making have both been productive." Beethoven had other local teachers: the court organist Gilles van den Eeden (d. 1782), Tobias Friedrich Pfeiffer (a family friend, who taught Beethoven the piano), and Franz Rovantini (a relative, who instructed him in playing the violin and viola).[2] Beethoven's musical talent was obvious at a young age. Johann, aware of Leopold Mozart's successes in this area (with son Wolfgang and daughter Nannerl), attempted to exploit his son as a child prodigy, claiming that Beethoven was six (he was seven) on the posters for Beethoven's first public performance in March 1778. Some time after 1779, Beethoven began his studies with his most important teacher in Bonn, Christian Gottlob Neefe, who was appointed the Court's Organist in that year.[ Neefe taught Beethoven composition, and by March 1783 had helped him write his first published composition: a set of keyboard variations (WoO 63). Beethoven soon began working with Neefe as assistant organist, at first unpaid (1781), and then as a paid employee (1784) of the court chapel conducted by the Kapellmeister Andrea Luchesi. His first three piano sonatas, named "Kurfürst" ("Elector") for their dedication to the Elector Maximilian Frederick (1708–1784), were published in 1783. Maximilian Frederick noticed Beethoven's talent early, and subsidised and encouraged the young man's musical studies. Maximilian Frederick's successor as the Elector of Bonn was Maximilian Franz, the youngest son of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, and he brought notable changes to Bonn. Echoing changes made in Vienna by his brother Joseph, he introduced reforms based on Enlightenment philosophy, with increased support for education and the arts. The teenage Beethoven was almost certainly influenced by these changes. He may also have been influenced at this time by ideas prominent in freemasonry, as Neefe and others around Beethoven were members of the local chapter of the Order of the Illuminati.[12] In March 1787 Beethoven traveled to Vienna (possibly at another's expense) for the first time, apparently in the hope of studying with Mozart. The details of their relationship are uncertain, including whether or not they actually met. After just two weeks Beethoven learned that his mother was severely ill, and returned home. His mother died shortly thereafter, and the father lapsed deeper into alcoholism. As a result, Beethoven became responsible for the care of his two younger brothers, and he spent the next five years in Bonn. Beethoven was introduced to several people who became important in his life in these years. Franz Wegeler, a young medical student, introduced him to the von Breuning family (one of whose daughters Wegeler eventually married). Beethoven often visited the von Breuning household, where he taught piano to some of the children. Here he encountered German and classical literature. The von Breuning family environment was less stressful than his own, which was increasingly dominated by his father's decline.[15] Beethoven also came to the attention of Count Ferdinand von Waldstein, who became a lifelong friend and financial supporter. In 1789 Beethoven obtained a legal order by which half of his father's salary was paid directly to him for support of the family.[17] He also contributed further to the family's income by playing viola in the court orchestra. This familiarised Beethoven with a variety of operas, including three by Mozart that were performed at court in this period. He also befriended Anton Reicha, a flautist and violinist of about his own age who was a nephew of the court orchestra's conductor, Josef Reicha.[18] يتيم الام في سن السابعة عشرة ومات ابوه وهو في سن الـ 22 كما انه كان يعاني من اعاقة في السمع. |
Srinivasa Ramanujan - Srinivasa was an Indian mathematician who was able to make huge contributions in the area of mathematical analysis and number theory. Srinivasa demonstrated an uncanny, natural ability to master mathematics. He had a complete math book mastered by 13, and even discovered theorems of his own. He won many awards by showing others his superior mathematical ability at his school. By age 17, this mathematical prodigy was doing his own research with mathematics and numbers. He compiled nearly 4,000 equations and identities in his short lifetime. == Srinivasa Ramanujan FRS (pronunciation (help·info)) (22 December 1887 – 26 April 1920) was an Indian mathematician and autodidact who, with almost no formal training in pure mathematics, made extraordinary contributions to mathematical analysis, number theory, infinite series, and continued fractions. Living in India with no access to the larger mathematical community, which was centered in Europe at the time, Ramanujan developed his own mathematical research in isolation. As a result, he sometimes rediscovered known theorems in addition to producing new work. Ramanujan was said to be a natural genius by the English mathematician G.H. Hardy, in the same league as mathematicians like Euler and Gauss.[1] early lifeBorn in a poor Brahmin family, Ramanujan's introduction to formal mathematics began at age 10. He demonstrated a natural ability, and was given books on advanced trigonometry written by S. L. Loney that he mastered by the age of 12; he even discovered theorems of his own, and re-discovered Euler's identity independently. He demonstrated unusual mathematical skills at school, winning accolades and awards. By 17, Ramanujan had conducted his own mathematical research on Bernoulli numbers and the Euler–Mascheroni constant. Ramanujan received a scholarship to study at Government College in Kumbakonam, but lost it when he failed his non-mathematical coursework. He joined another college to pursue independent mathematical research, working as a clerk in the Accountant-General's office at the Madras Port Trust Office to support himself. In 1912–1913, he sent samples of his theorems to three academics at the University of Cambridge. G. H. Hardy, recognizing the brilliance of his work, invited Ramanujan to visit and work with him at Cambridge. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society and a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Srinivasa died of illness, malnutrition, and possibly liver infection in 1920 at the age of 32. During his short lifetime, Ramanujan independently compiled nearly 3900 results (mostly identities and equations). Most of his claims have now been proven correct, although a small number of these results were actually false and some were already known. He stated results that were both original and highly unconventional, such as the Ramanujan prime and the Ramanujan theta function, and these have inspired a vast amount of further research.[6] However, the mathematical mainstream has been rather slow in absorbing some of his major discoveries. The Ramanujan Journal, an international publication, was launched to publish work in all areas of mathematics influenced by his work. In December 2011, in recognition of his contribution to mathematics, the Government of India declared that Ramanujan's birthday (22 December) should be celebrated every year as National Mathematics Day, and also declared 2012 the National Mathematical Year. Ramanujan was born on 22 December 1887 in Erode, Madras Presidency, at the residence of his maternal grandparents. His father, K. Srinivasa Iyengar, worked as a clerk in a sari shop and hailed from the district of Thanjavur. Adulthood in IndiaHis mother, Komalatammal, was a housewife and also sang at a local temple. They lived in Sarangapani Street in a traditional home in the town of Kumbakonam. The family home is now a museum. When Ramanujan was a year and a half old, his mother gave birth to a son named Sadagopan, who died less than three months later. In December 1889, Ramanujan had smallpox جدري and recovered, unlike thousands in the Thanjavur District who died from the disease that year. He moved with his mother to her parents' house in Kanchipuram, near Madras (now Chennai). In November 1891, and again in 1894, his mother gave birth to two children, but both children died in infancy. On 1 October 1892, Ramanujan was enrolled at the local school. In March 1894, he was moved to a Telugu medium school. After his maternal grandfather lost his job as a court official in Kanchipuram, Ramanujan and his mother moved back to Kumbakonam and he was enrolled in the Kangayan Primary School. When his paternal grandfather died, he was sent back to his maternal grandparents, who were now living in Madras. He did not like school in Madras, and he tried to avoid attending. His family enlisted a local constable to make sure he attended school. Within six months, Ramanujan was back in Kumbakonam. Since Ramanujan's father was at work most of the day, his mother took care of him as a child. He had a close relationship with her. From her, he learned about tradition and puranas. He learned to sing religious songs, to attend pujas at the temple and particular eating habits – all of which are part of Brahmin culture. At the Kangayan Primary School, Ramanujan performed well. Just before the age of 10, in November 1897, he passed his primary examinations in English, Tamil, geography and arithmetic. With his scores, he stood first in the district. That year, Ramanujan entered Town Higher Secondary School where he encountered formal mathematics for the first time. By age 11, he had exhausted the mathematical knowledge of two college students who were lodgers at his home. He was later lent a book on advanced trigonometry written by S. L. Loney. He completely mastered this book by the age of 13 and discovered sophisticated theorems on his own. By 14, he was receiving merit certificates and academic awards which continued throughout his school career and also assisted the school in the logistics of assigning its 1200 students (each with their own needs) to its 35-odd teachers.[21] He completed mathematical exams in half the allotted time, and showed a familiarity with infinite series. Ramanujan was shown how to solve cubic equations in 1902 and he went on to find his own method to solve the quartic. The following year, not knowing that the quintic could not be solved by radicals, he tried (and of course failed) to solve the quintic. In 1903 when he was 16, Ramanujan obtained from a friend a library-loaned copy of a book by G. S. Carr.[22][23] The book was titled A Synopsis of Elementary Results in Pure and Applied Mathematics and was a collection of 5000 theorems. Ramanujan reportedly studied the contents of the book in detail.[24] The book is generally acknowledged as a key element in awakening the genius of Ramanujan.[24] The next year, he had independently developed and investigated the Bernoulli numbers and had calculated Euler's constant up to 15 decimal places.[25] His peers at the time commented that they "rarely understood him" and "stood in respectful awe" of him.[21] When he graduated from Town Higher Secondary School in 1904, Ramanujan was awarded the K. Ranganatha Rao prize for mathematics by the school's headmaster, Krishnaswami Iyer. Iyer introduced Ramanujan as an outstanding student who deserved scores higher than the maximum possible marks.[21] He received a scholarship to study at Government Arts College, Kumbakonam,[26][27] However, Ramanujan was so intent on studying mathematics that he could not focus on any other subjects and failed most of them, losing his scholarship in the process.[28] In August 1905, he ran away from home, heading towards Visakhapatnam and stayed in Rajahmundry for about a month.[29] He later enrolled at Pachaiyappa's College in Madras. He again excelled in mathematics but performed poorly in other subjects such as physiology. Ramanujan failed his Fine Arts degree exam in December 1906 and again a year later. Without a degree, he left college and continued to pursue independent research in mathematics. At this point in his life, he lived in extreme poverty and was often on the brink of starvation.[30] On 14 July 1909, Ramanujan was married to a nine-year old bride, Janaki Ammal. After the marriage, Ramanujan developed a hydrocele testis, an abnormal swelling of the tunica vaginalis, an internal membrane in the testicle. The condition could be treated with a routine surgical operation that would release the blocked fluid in the scrotal sac. His family did not have the money for the operation, but in January 1910, a doctor volunteered to do the surgery for free. After his successful surgery, Ramanujan searched for a job. He stayed at friends' houses while he went door to door around the city of Madras (now Chennai) looking for a clerical position. To make some money, he tutored some students at Presidency College who were preparing for their F.A. exam. In late 1910, Ramanujan was sick again, possibly as a result of the surgery earlier in the year. He feared for his health, and even told his friend, R. Radakrishna Iyer, to "hand these [Ramanujan's mathematical notebooks] over to Professor Singaravelu Mudaliar [the mathematics professor at Pachaiyappa's College] or to the British professor Edward B. Ross, of the Madras Christian College."[35] After Ramanujan recovered and got back his notebooks from Iyer, he took a northbound train from Kumbakonam to Villupuram, a coastal city under French control == While he had his friends and mentors, it was an unfinished life. Ramanujan passed away at the young age of 32 of tuberculosis, السل but he left behind formulations in mathematics that have paved the path for many scholars who came after him. طفولة كارثية مليئة بالموت والألم والفقر حتى انه كان يعيش من صدقات اصدقاءه. لا يعرف متى مات والديه لكن حياته كلها كان يملؤها الموت والمرض و الألم. اصيب بمرض الجدري وكان من بين القلائل الذين لم يموتوا في ذلك العام بسبب ذلك المرض. مات له عدة اخوة وهم صغار ، وعاش بعيدا في منزل جده ومات صغير السن بسبب مرض السل . طفولة وحياة كارثية. |
Johann Sebastian Bach life- Bach was an exceptional composer and organist. He specialized in choir, orchestra, and solo instruments. He was able to enrich the German composing style with a full harmonic scale and was able to adapt rhythms from Italy and France. Though his music began early in the 19th century, he is now noted as one of the greatest composers in the Western tradition. Bach was yet another musical genius. == Johann Sebastian Bach (31 March [O.S. 21 March] 1685 – 28 July 1750) was a German composer, organist, harpsichordist, violist, and violinist of the Baroque Period. He enriched many established German styles through his skill in counterpoint, harmonic and motivic organisation, and the adaptation of rhythms, forms, and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and France. Many of Bach's works are still known today, such as the Brandenburg Concertos, the Mass in B minor, the The Well-Tempered Clavier, and his cantatas, chorales, partitas, passions, and organ works – and his music is revered for its intellectual depth, technical command, and artistic beauty.Bach was born in Eisenach, Saxe-Eisenach into a very musical family; his father, Johann Ambrosius Bach (Johann Ambrosius Bach (February 22/24, 1645 – February 20/24, 1695) was a German composer, father to Johann Sebastian Bach) ; was the director of the town's musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father taught him to play violin and harpsichord, and his brother, Johann Christoph Bach, taught him the clavichord and exposed him to much contemporary music. Bach also sang, and he went to the St Michael's School in Lüneburg because of his skill in voice. After graduating, he held several musical posts across Germany: he served as Kapellmeister (director of music) to Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen, Cantor of Thomasschule in Leipzig, and Royal Court Composer to August III. Bach's health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Modern historians believe that his death was caused by a combination of stroke and pneumonia.[ Bach's abilities as an organist were highly respected throughout Europe during his lifetime, although he was not widely recognised as a great composer until a revival of interest and performances of his music in the first half of the 19th century. He is now generally regarded as one of the main composers of the Baroque period, and as one of the greatest composers of all time. Childhood (1685–1703) Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, Saxe-Eisenach, on 21 March 1685 O.S. (31 March 1685 N.S.). He was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. He was the eighth child of Johann Ambrosius; the eldest son in the family was 14 at the time of Bach's birth. His father taught him violin and harpsichord. His uncles were all professional musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians, and composers. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach (1645–93), introduced him to the organ, and an older second cousin, Johann Ludwig Bach (1677–1731), was a well-known composer and violinist. Bach drafted a genealogy around 1735, titled "Origin of the musical Bach family". Bach's mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. Bach, 10, moved in with his oldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach (1671–1721), the organist at the Michaeliskirche in Ohrdruf, Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.[14] There he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brother's, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly.[15][16] He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord. J.C. Bach exposed him to the works of great composers of the day, including South German composers such as Johann Pachelbel (under whom Johann Christoph had studied)[2] and Johann Jakob Froberger; North German composers;[3] Frenchmen, such as Jean-Baptiste Lully, Louis Marchand, Marin Marais; and the Italian clavierist Girolamo Frescobaldi. Also during this time, he was taught theology, Latin, Greek, French, and Italian at the local gymnasium.[17] At the age of 14, Bach, along with his older school friend George Erdmann, was awarded a choral scholarship to study at the prestigious St. Michael's School in Lüneburg in the Principality of Lüneburg.[18] Although it is not known for certain, the trip was likely taken mostly on foot.[17] His two years there were critical in exposing him to a wider facet of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir he played the School's three-manual organ and harpsichords.[17] He came into contact with sons of noblemen from northern Germany sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines. Although little supporting historical evidence exists at this time, it is almost certain that while in Lüneburg, Bach visited the Johanniskirche (Church of St. John) and heard (and possibly played) the church's famous organ (built in 1549 by Jasper Johannsen, and played by Georg Böhm). Given his musical talent, Bach had significant contact with prominent organists of the day in Lüneburg, most notably Böhm, but also including organists in nearby Hamburg, such as Johann Adam Reincken[ يتيم الأم والأب في سن الـ 10 . |
Wolfgang Amedeus Mozart - Mozart was a very influential composer during the classical era. He was able to create over 600 compositions that were widely accepted and acknowledged. His music specialties included symphony, chamber music, piano, opera, and choral music. Mozart is among the most popular of classical composers, and many of his works are still included in concerts today. Mozart clearly demonstrated his musical proficiency and level of genius. == Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (German:, English see fn.) baptismal name Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart (27 January 1756 – 5 December 1791), was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era. Mozart showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood. Already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty. At 17, he was engaged as a court musician in Salzburg, but grew restless and travelled in search of a better position, always composing abundantly. While visiting Vienna in 1781, he was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He chose to stay in the capital, where he achieved fame but little financial security. During his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his death. The circumstances of his early death have been much mythologized. He was survived by his wife Constanze and two sons. Mozart learned voraciously from others, and developed a brilliance and maturity of style that encompassed the light and graceful along with the dark and passionate. He composed over 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. He is among the most enduringly popular of classical composers, and his influence on subsequent Western art music is profound; Beethoven composed his own early works in the shadow of Mozart, and Joseph Haydn wrote that "posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years."[3] biography Family and early years Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born to Leopold Mozart (1719–1787) and Anna Maria, née Pertl (1720–1778), at 9 Getreidegasse in Salzburg, capital of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, a former ecclesiastical principality in what is now Austria, but then was part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. 1762–1773: Years of travelHe was the youngest of seven children, five of them who died in infancy. His elder sister was Maria Anna (1751–1829), nicknamed "Nannerl". Mozart was baptized the day after his birth at St. Rupert's Cathedral. The baptismal record gives his name in Latinized form as Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart. He generally called himself "Wolfgang Amadè Mozart" as an adult, but there were many variants. Leopold Mozart, a native of Augsburg, was a minor composer and an experienced teacher. In 1743, he was appointed as fourth violinist in the musical establishment of Count Leopold Anton von Firmian, the ruling Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg. Four years later, he married Anna Maria in Salzburg. Leopold became the orchestra's deputy Kapellmeister in 1763. During the year of his son's birth, Leopold published a violin textbook, Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule, which achieved success. When Nannerl was seven, she began keyboard lessons with her father while her three-year-old brother looked on. Years later, after her brother's death, she reminisced: He often spent much time at the clavier, picking out thirds, which he was ever striking, and his pleasure showed that it sounded good. [...] In the fourth year of his age his father, for a game as it were, began to teach him a few minuets and pieces at the clavier. [...] He could play it faultlessly and with the greatest delicacy, and keeping exactly in time. [...] At the age of five, he was already composing little pieces, which he played to his father who wrote them down. These early pieces, K. 1–5, were recorded in the Nannerl Notenbuch. Biographer Maynard Solomon notes that, while Leopold was a devoted teacher to his children, there is evidence that Mozart was keen to progress beyond what he was taught. His first ink-spattered composition and his precocious efforts with the violin were of his own initiative and came as a surprise to his father. Leopold eventually gave up composing when his son's musical talents became evident.[ In his early years, Mozart's father was his only teacher. Along with music, he also taught his children languages and academic subjects. During Mozart's youth, his family made several European journeys in which he and Nannerl performed as child prodigies. These began with an exhibition, in 1762, at the court of the Prince-electorMaximilian III of Bavaria in Munich, and at the Imperial Court in Vienna and Prague. A long concert tour spanning three and a half years followed, taking the family to the courts of Munich, Mannheim, Paris, London, The Hague, again to Paris, and back home via Zurich, Donaueschingen, and Munich. 1773–1777: The Salzburg courtDuring this trip, Mozart met a great number of musicians and acquainted himself with the works of other composers. A particularly important influence was Johann Christian Bach, whom Mozart visited in London in 1764 and 1765. The family again went to Vienna in late 1767 and remained there until December 1768. In 1767, during this period, Mozart composed the Latin drama Apollo et Hyacinthus first performed in Salzburg University. These trips were often difficult and travel conditions were primitive. The family had to wait for invitations and reimbursement from the nobility and they endured long, near-fatal illnesses far from home: first Leopold (London, summer 1764) then both children (The Hague, autumn 1765). After one year in Salzburg, Leopold and Mozart set off for Italy, leaving Mozart's mother and sister at home. This travel lasted from December 1769 to March 1771. As with earlier journeys, Leopold wanted to display his son's abilities as a performer and a rapidly maturing composer. Mozart met G. B. Martini, in Bologna, and was accepted as a member of the famous Accademia Filarmonica. In Rome, he heard Gregorio Allegri's Miserere twice in performance in the Sistine Chapel and wrote it out from memory, thus producing the first unauthorized copy of this closely guarded property of the Vatican. In Milan, Mozart wrote the opera Mitridate, re di Ponto (1770), which was performed with success. This led to further opera commissions. He returned with his father later twice to Milan (August–December 1771; October 1772 – March 1773) for the composition and premieres of Ascanio in Alba (1771) and Lucio Silla (1772). Leopold hoped these visits would result in a professional appointment for his son in Italy, but these hopes were never realized. Toward the end of the final Italian journey, Mozart wrote the first of his works to be still widely performed today, the solo motetExsultate, jubilate, K. 165. After finally returning with his father from Italy on 13 March 1773, Mozart was employed as a court musician by the ruler of Salzburg, Prince-Archbishop Hieronymus Colloredo. The composer had a great number of friends and admirers in Salzburg[20] and had the opportunity to work in many genres, including symphonies, sonatas, string quartets, masses, serenades, and a few minor operas. Between April and December 1775, Mozart developed an enthusiasm for violin concertos, producing a series of five (the only ones he ever wrote), which steadily increased in their musical sophistication. The last three—K. 216, K. 218, K. 219—are now staples of the repertoire. In 1776 he turned his efforts to piano concertos, culminating in the E-flat concerto K. 271 of early 1777, considered by critics to be a breakthrough work.[21] 1777–1778: The Paris journeyDespite these artistic successes, Mozart grew increasingly discontented with Salzburg and redoubled his efforts to find a position elsewhere. One reason was his low salary, 150 florins a year;[22] Mozart also longed to compose operas, and Salzburg provided only rare occasions for these. The situation worsened in 1775 when the court theater was closed, especially since the other theater in Salzburg was largely reserved for visiting troupes. Two long expeditions in search of work interrupted this long Salzburg stay: Mozart and his father visited Vienna from 14 July to 26 September 1773, and Munich from 6 December 1774 to March 1775. Neither visit was successful, though the Munich journey resulted in a popular success with the premiere of Mozart's opera La finta giardiniera.[24] In August 1777, Mozart resigned his Salzburg position[26] and, on 23 September, ventured out once more in search of employment, with visits to Augsburg, Mannheim, Paris, and Munich.[27] Mozart became acquainted with members of the famous orchestra in Mannheim, the best in Europe at the time. He also fell in love with Aloysia Weber, one of four daughters in a musical family. There were prospects of employment in Mannheim, but they came to nothing,[28] and Mozart left for Paris on 14 March 1778[29] to continue his search. One of his letters from Paris hints at a possible post as an organist at Versailles, but Mozart was not interested in such an appointment.[30] He fell into debt and took to pawning valuables.[31] The nadir of the visit occurred when Mozart's mother was taken ill and died on 3 July 1778.[32] There had been delays in calling a doctor—probably, according to Halliwell, because of a lack of funds.[33] While Mozart was in Paris, his father was pursuing opportunities for his son back in Salzburg[ With the support of local nobility, Mozart was offered a post as court organist and concertmaster. The yearly salary was 450 florins,[35] but he was reluctant to accept.[36] After leaving Paris on in September 1778, he tarried in Mannheim and Munich, still hoping to obtain an appointment outside Salzburg. In Munich, he again encountered Aloysia, now a very successful singer, but she was no longer interested in him.[37] Mozart finally reached home on 15 January 1779 and took up the new position, but his discontent with Salzburg was undiminished. Among the better known works that Mozart wrote on the Paris journey are the A minor piano sonata K. 310/300d and the "Paris" Symphony (no. 31); these were performed in Paris on 12 and 18 June 1778. رزق ليوبولد وزوجته آنا ماريا موزارت بولدهما اماديوس، وحينها لم يعلما بأنه سوف يصبح نابغة من نوابغ الزمان. له اخت واحدة وتسمى "نانيرل" (1751-1829م)،. تم تعميده في اليوم التالي لميلاده بكنيسة روبرتس. والده كان مفوضاً لإدارة الأوركسترا لدى رئيس الأساقفة في سالزبورغ، وهو يعتبر مؤلفاً موسيقياً ثانوياً. كما كان معلماً خبيراً، ففي العام الذي ولد فيه كان والده قد ألف كتاباً ناجحاً عن آلة الكمنجة وموزارت لم يتعلم في حياته سوي الموسيقى وكانت أسرته فقيرة لذلك لم يعالجوه من الفشل الكلوي أو الحمى. كان الاصغر سنا من بين سبعة أطفال ، مات خمسة من إخوته في طفولتهم ، ومرض بالحمى والفشل الكلوي ولم تعالجه عائلته بسبب الفقر الشديد ، و ماتت والدته وعمره 22 سنة. يتيم يتم متأخر وحياة كارثية فيها الكثير من الموت والمرض. |
George Berkeley - George Berkeley was an Irish philosopher and developed a famous theory of “immaterialism.” Berkeley also published a book called “The Analyst” that would critique calculus and influence common day mathematics. University Of California, Berkeley was named after George due to his intelligence and philosophical insight. Table Of Contents== George Berkeley, (born March 12, 1685, near Dysert Castle, near Thomastown?, County Kilkenny, Ireland—died January 14, 1753, Oxford, England), Anglo-Irish Anglican bishop, philosopher, and scientist, best known for his empiricist and idealist philosophy, which holds that everything save the spiritual exists only insofar as it is perceived by the senses. Early life and works Berkeley was the eldest son of William Berkeley, described as a “gentleman” in George’s matriculation entry and as a commissioned officer, a cornet of dragoons, in the entry of a younger brother. Brought up at Dysert Castle, Berkeley entered Kilkenny College in 1696 and Trinity College, Dublin, in 1700, where he graduated with a B.A. degree in 1704. While awaiting a fellowship vacancy, he made a critical study of time, vision, and the hypothesis that there is no material substance. The principal influences upon his thinking were empiricism, represented by the English philosopher John Locke, and Continental skepticism, represented by Pierre Bayle. His first publication, Arithmetica and Miscellanea Mathematica (published together in 1707), was probably a fellowship thesis. == ==George Berkeley was born in or near Kilkenny, Ireland on 12 March 1685. He was raised in Dysart Castle. Although his father was English, Berkeley always considered himself Irish. In 1696, he entered Kilkenny College == George Berkeley's father was William Berkeley and his mother is believed to have been Elisabeth Southerne, although this has not been verified with complete certainty جورج بيركلي (بالإنجليزية: George Berkeley) (12 مارس 1685 – 14 يناير 1753) كان فيلسوفًا بريطانيًا-إيرلنديًا وأسقفا أنجليكانيا يعتبر من أهم مساندي الرؤية الجوهرية في القرن الثامن العشر الميلادي، ادعى بيركلي انه لا يوجد شيء اسمه مادة على الإطلاق وما يراه البشر ويعتبرونه عالمهم المادي لا يعدو ان يكون مجرد فكرة في عقل الله. وهكذا فأن العقل البشري لا يعدو ان يكون بيانا للروح. قلة من فلاسفة اليوم يمتلكون هذه الرؤية المتطرفة، لكن فكرة ان العقل الإنساني، هو جوهر، وهو أكثر علوا ورقيا من مجرد وظائف دماغية، لا تزال مقبولة بشكل واسع. آراء بيركلي هوجمت، وفي نظر الكثيرين نسفت تماما. لبيركلي أيضا أعمال في الرياضياتالإبستمولوجيا. مجهول الطفولة. |
Ludwig Wittgenstein Early life- Ludwig was an Austrian philosopher that developed theories involving logic. He contributed to the philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of language, and philosophy of the mind. He has had a huge influence on philosophy and is widely accepted as one of the twentieth century’s best philosophers. Wittengenstein published 2 books and both were highly influential in philosophy. Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein (26 April 1889 – 29 April 1951) was an Austrian-British philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language.[1] He was professor in philosophy at the University of Cambridge from 1939 until 1947.[2] In his lifetime, he published just one book review, one article, a children's dictionary, and the 75-page Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921).[3] In 1999, his posthumously published Philosophical Investigations (1953) was ranked as the most important book of 20th-century philosophy by the Baruch Poll , standing out as "...the one crossover masterpiece in twentieth-century philosophy, appealing across diverse specializations and philosophical orientations".[4] Philosopher Bertrand Russell described him as "the most perfect example I have ever known of genius as traditionally conceived, passionate, profound, intense, and dominating".[5] Born in Vienna into one of Europe's wealthiest families, he gave away his entire inheritance.[6] Three of his brothers committed suicide, with Ludwig contemplating it too.[7] He left academia several times: serving as an officer on the frontline during World War I, where he was decorated a number of times for his courage; teaching in schools in remote Austrian villages, where he encountered controversy for hitting children when they made mistakes in mathematics; and working during World War II as a hospital porter in London, where he told patients not to take the drugs they were prescribed, and where no-one knew he was one of the world's most famous philosophers.[8] He described philosophy, however, as "the only work that gives me real satisfaction."[9] His philosophy is often divided between his early period, exemplified by the Tractatus, and later period, articulated in the Philosophical Investigations. The early Wittgenstein was concerned with the logical relationship between propositions and the world, and believed that by providing an account of the logic underlying this relationship he had solved all philosophical problems. The later Wittgenstein rejected many of the conclusions of the Tractatus, arguing that the meaning of words is constituted by the function they perform within any given language-game. Wittgenstein's influence has been felt in nearly every field of the humanities and social sciences, yet there are widely diverging interpretations of his thought. In the words of his friend and colleague Georg Henrik von Wright: "He was of the opinion... that his ideas were generally misunderstood and distorted even by those who professed to be his disciples. He doubted he would be better understood in the future. He once said he felt as though he were writing for people who would think in a different way, breathe a different air of life, from that of present-day men."[10] Wittgenstein's mother was Leopoldine Kalmus. Her father was CzechJewish and her mother was Austrian-SloveneCatholic—she was Ludwig's maternal grandparent and only non-Jewish grandparent, whose ancestry was Austrian and an aunt of the Nobel Prize laureate Friedrich Hayek on her maternal side. Family temperament; brothers' suicidesLudwig was born at 8:30pm on 26 April 1889 in the so-called "Wittgenstein Palace" at Alleegasse 16, now the Argentinierstrasse, near the Karlskirche. Karl and Poldi, as she was known, had nine children in all. There were four girls: Hermine, Margaret (Gretl), Helene, and a fourth daughter who died as a baby; and five boys: Johannes (Hans), Kurt, Rudolf (Rudi), Paul—who became a concert pianist despite losing an arm in World War I—and Ludwig, who was the youngest of the family. The children were baptized as Catholics, and raised in an exceptionally intense environment. The family was at the center of Vienna's cultural life; Bruno Walter described the life at the Wittgensteins' palace as an "all-pervading atmosphere of humanity and culture". Karl was a leading patron of the arts, commissioning works by Auguste Rodin and financing the city's exhibition hall and art gallery, the Secession Building. Gustav Klimt painted Wittgenstein's sister for her wedding portrait, and Johannes Brahms and Gustav Mahler gave regular concerts in the family's numerous music rooms. For Ludwig, who highly valued precision and discipline, contemporary music was never considered acceptable at all. "Music", he said to his friend Drury in 1930, "came to a full stop with Brahms; and even in Brahms I can begin to hear the noise of machinery."[26] Ludwig himself had absolute pitch perception, and his devotion to music remained vitally important to him throughout his life: he made frequent use of musical examples and metaphors in his philosophical writings, and was unusually adept at whistling lengthy and detailed musical passages. He also learnt to play the clarinet in his thirties.[29] Ray Monk writes that Karl's aim was to turn his sons into captains of industry; they were not sent to school lest they acquire bad habits, but were educated at home to prepare them for work in Karl's industrial empire. Three of the five brothers would later commit suicide. The Irish psychiatrist Michael Fitzgerald argues that Karl was a harsh perfectionist who lacked empathy, and that Wittgenstein's mother was anxious and insecure, unable to stand up to her husband Johannes Brahms said of the family, whom he visited regularly: "They seemed to act towards one another as if they were at court". The family appeared to have a strong streak of depression running through it. Anthony Gottlieb tells a story about Paul practicing on one of the seven grand pianos in the Wittgensteins' main family mansion, when he suddenly shouted at Ludwig in the next room: "I cannot play when you are in the house, as I feel your skepticism seeping towards me from under the door!"[33] The eldest brother, Hans, was hailed as a musical prodigy. At the age of four, Waugh writes, Hans could identify the Doppler effect in a passing siren as a quarter-tone drop in pitch, and at five started crying "Wrong! Wrong!" when two brass bands in a carnival played the same tune in different keys. But he died in mysterious circumstances in May 1902, when he ran away to America and disappeared from a boat in Chesapeake Bay, most likely having committed suicide.[34] Two years later, aged 22 and studying chemistry at the Berlin Academy, the third eldest brother, Rudi, committed suicide in a Berlin bar. He had asked the pianist to play Thomas Koschat's "Verlassen, verlassen, verlassen bin ich ("Forsaken, forsaken, forsaken am I"),[35] before mixing himself a drink of milk and potassium cyanide. He had left several suicide notes, one to his parents that said he was grieving over the death of a friend, and another that referred to his "perverted disposition". It was reported at the time that he had sought advice from the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, an organization that was campaigning against Paragraph 175 of the German Criminal Code, which from 1871 until 1969 prohibited homosexual sex. His father forbade the family from ever mentioning his name again.[36] "I won't say "See you tomorrow" because that would be like predicting the future, and I'm pretty sure I can't do that." — Wittgenstein, 1949[37] The second eldest brother, Kurt, an officer and company director, shot himself on 27 October 1918 at the end of World War I, when the Austrian troops he was commanding refused to obey his orders and deserted en masse.[30] According to Gottlieb, Hermine had said Kurt seemed to carry "the germ of disgust for life within himself".[38] Paul also considered suicide, as did Ludwig.[33] Later Wittgenstein wrote: "I ought to have... become a star in the sky. Instead of which I have remained stuck on earth."[3 When his father died in 1913 Wittgenstein inherited a fortune, which he quickly gave away. When war broke out the next year, he volunteered for the Austrian army. He continued his philosophical work and won several medals for bravery during the war. طفولة كارثية. والد مثالي صعب المراس تسبب في انتحار ثلاثة من ابناؤه. الاب مات عام 1913 اي وهو في سن 23 ولا يعرف متى ماتت الام. |
Socrates Biography- Socrates is regarded as one of the best ancient greek philosophers of all time. As teacher of Plato, he has been associated with highly advanced thinking during his time. His work continues to form much of the foundation for the study of philosophy today. Socrates has made important contributions to the study of logic and writings, and has provided a lot of groundwork that much of the Western civilization has followed. == Socrates (; Greek: Ancient Greek pronunciation:; c. 469 BC – 399 BC) was a classical GreekAthenianphilosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary Aristophanes. Many would claim that Plato's dialogues are the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity. Through his portrayal in Plato's dialogues, Socrates has become renowned for his contribution to the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who also lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, or elenchus. The latter remains a commonly used tool in a wide range of discussions, and is a type of pedagogy in which a series of questions are asked not only to draw individual answers, but also to encourage fundamental insight into the issue at hand. It is Plato's Socrates that also made important and lasting contributions to the fields of epistemology and logic, and the influence of his ideas and approach remains strong in providing a foundation for much western philosophy that followed. As Martin Cohen has put it, Plato, the idealist, offers "an idol, a master figure, for philosophy. A Saint, a prophet of the 'Sun-God', a teacher condemned for his teachings as a heretic."[3] The Socratic problem An accurate picture of the historical Socrates and his philosophical viewpoints is problematic: an issue known as the Socratic problem. LifeAs Socrates did not write philosophical texts, the knowledge of the man, his life, and his philosophy is entirely based on writings by his students and contemporaries. Foremost among them is Plato; however, works by Xenophon, Aristotle, and Aristophanes also provide important insights.[4] The difficulty of finding the “real” Socrates arises because these works are often philosophical or dramatic texts rather than straightforward histories. Aside from Thucydides (who makes no mention of Socrates or philosophers in general) and Xenophon, there are in fact no straightforward histories contemporary with Socrates that dealt with his own time and place. A corollary of this is that sources that do mention Socrates do not necessarily claim to be historically accurate, and are often partisan (those who prosecuted and convicted Socrates have left no testament). Historians therefore face the challenge of reconciling the various texts that come from these men to create an accurate and consistent account of Socrates' life and work. The result of such an effort is not necessarily realistic, merely consistent. Plato is frequently viewed as the most informative source about Socrates' life and philosophy.[5] At the same time, however, many scholars believe that in some works Plato, being a literary artist, pushed his avowedly brightened-up version of "Socrates" far beyond anything the historical Socrates was likely to have done or said; and that Xenophon, being an historian, is a more reliable witness to the historical Socrates. It is a matter of much debate which Socrates Plato is describing at any given point—the historical figure, or Plato's fictionalization. It is also clear from other writings and historical artifacts, however, that Socrates was not simply a character, or an invention, of Plato. The testimony of Xenophon and Aristotle, alongside some of Aristophanes' work (especially The Clouds), is useful in fleshing out a perception of Socrates beyond Plato's work. Details about Socrates can be derived from three contemporary sources: the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon (both devotees of Socrates), and the plays of Aristophanes. He has been depicted by some scholars, including Eric Havelock and Walter Ong, as a champion of oral modes of communication, standing up at the dawn of writing against its haphazard diffusion. ==Aristophanes' play The Clouds portrays Socrates as a clown who teaches his students how to bamboozle their way out of debt. Most of Aristophanes' works, however, function as parodies. Thus, it is presumed this characterization was also not literal. According to Plato, Socrates' father was Sophroniscus and his mother Phaenarete, a midwife. Though she was characterized as undesirable in temperament, Socrates married Xanthippe who was much younger than he. She bore for him three sons, Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus. His friend Crito of Alopece criticized him for abandoning his sons when he refused to try to escape before his execution. It is unclear how Socrates earned a living. Ancient texts seem to indicate that Socrates did not work. In Xenophon's Symposium, Socrates is reported as saying he devotes himself only to what he regards as the most important art or occupation: discussing philosophy. In The Clouds Aristophanes portrays Socrates as accepting payment for teaching and running a sophist school with Chaerephon, while in Plato's Apology and Symposium and in Xenophon's accounts, Socrates explicitly denies accepting payment for teaching. More specifically, in the Apology Socrates cites his poverty as proof he is not a teacher. According to Timon of Phlius and later sources, Socrates took over the profession of stonemasonry from his father. There was a tradition in antiquity, not credited by modern scholarship, that Socrates crafted the statues of the Three Graces, which stood near the Acropolis until the 2nd century AD.[12] Several of Plato's dialogues refer to Socrates' military service. Socrates says he served in the Athenian army during three campaigns: at Potidaea, Amphipolis, and Delium. In the Symposium Alcibiades describes Socrates' valour in the battles of Potidaea and Delium, recounting how Socrates saved his life in the former battle (219e-221b). Socrates' exceptional service at Delium is also mentioned in the Laches by the General after whom the dialogue is named (181b). In the Apology, Socrates compares his military service to his courtroom troubles, and says anyone on the jury who thinks he ought to retreat from philosophy must also think soldiers should retreat when it seems likely that they will be killed in battle. In 406 he was a member of the Boule, and his tribe the Antiochis held the Prytany on the day the Generals of the Battle of Arginusae, who abandoned the slain and the survivors of foundered ships to pursue the defeated Spartan navy, were discussed. Socrates was the Epistates and resisted the unconstitutional demand for a collective trial to establish the guilt of all eight Generals, proposed by Callixeinus. Eventually, Socrates refused to be cowed by threats of impeachment and imprisonment and blocked the vote until his Prytany ended the next day, whereupon the six Generals who had returned to Athens were condemned to death. In 404 the Thirty Tyrants sought to ensure the loyalty of those opposed to them by making them complicit in their activities. Socrates and four others were ordered to bring a certain Leon of Salamis from his home for unjust execution. Socrates quietly refused, his death averted only by the overthrow of the Tyrants soon afterwards. = (Since Plato has Lysimachus refer to Sophroniscus in the past tense, and since the dialogue's dramatic date is not long after the battle of Delium, we may safely infer that Sophroniscus was dead by 424.) The fact that one of Socrates' sons - but not his eldest son Lamprocles - was named after Sophroniscus suggests that Sophroniscus was the less illustrious of the two grandfathers (John Burnet 1911, Plato: Phaedo, p. 12) - that the father of Socrates' wife, Xanthippe, was named Lamprocles and had a more impressive pedigree than even Sophroniscus. All this suggests that Socrates' inherited social status was in fact much higher than is traditionally recognized. = Phaenarete (Greek Φαιναρέτη), wife of Sophroniscus, was the mother of the Greek philosopherSocrates and his half-brother, Patrocles. (Since Sophroniscus had died before 424 BC, he was probably Phaenarete's first husband, while Chaeredemus, father of Patrocles, was her second.) The name Phaenarete means "She who brings virtue to light".[1 على الاغلب انه يتيم الاب حيث ان والدته تزوجت وانجب اخ غير شقيق. لكن لا يعرف متى مات والد وهناك من يقول انه مات قبل 424 ق.م. مجهول الطفولة. |
Linus Pauling early life and education– Linus Pauling was a peace activist, scientist, author, and teacher. Pauling is regarded as one of the most influential chemists in history and was one of the most important scientists of all time. He was one of the pioneers to work in the study of molecular biology and quantum chemistry. He has been awarded more than 1 Nobel Prize and is one of only 2 individuals to receive them for different fields. == Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994)[1] was an American chemist, biochemist, peace activist, author, and educator. He was one of the most influential chemists in history and ranks among the most important scientists of the 20th century.[2][3][4] Pauling was one of the founders of the fields of quantum chemistry and molecular biology. Pauling is the only person to be awarded two unshared Nobel Prizes, one of only four individuals to have won more than one (Marie Curie, John Bardeen and Frederick Sanger are the others) and one of only two people awarded Nobel Prizes in different fields (the Chemistry and Peace prizes), the other being Marie Curie (the Chemistry and Physics prizes). [5] Pauling was born in Portland, Oregon as the first-born child of Herman Henry William Pauling (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle "Belle" Darling (1881–1926). Higher educationHe was named "Linus Carl," in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl.[9] Herman and Lucy – then 23 and 18 years old, respectively – had met at a dinner party in Condon. Six months later, the two were married.[10] Herman Pauling was descended from Prussian farmers, who had immigrated to a German settlement in Concordia, Missouri. Carl Pauling moved his family to California, before settling in Oswego, Oregon. There he worked as an ironmonger at a foundry.[11] After completing grammar school, Herman Pauling served as an apprentice to a druggist. Upon completion of his services, he became a wholesale bread salesman.[12] Pauling's mother, Lucy, of English/Scottish descent was the daughter of Linus Wilson Darling, who had served as a teacher, farmer, surveyor, postmaster and lawyer at different points of his life. Linus Darling was orphaned at the age of 11 and apprenticed under a baker before becoming a schoolteacher. He fell in love with a young woman named Alice from Turner, Oregon, whom he eventually married.[13] On July 17, 1888, Alice gave birth to the couple's fifth child, but he was stillborn. Less than a month later, she died, leaving Darling to take care of their four young daughters. Linus Pauling spent his first year living in a one-room apartment with his parents in Portland. In 1902, after his sister Pauline was born, Pauling's parents decided to move out of the city. They were crowded in their apartment, but couldn't afford more spacious living quarters in Portland. Lucy stayed with her husband's parents in Oswego, while Herman searched for new housing. Herman brought the family to Salem, where he took up a job as a traveling salesman for the Skidmore Drug Company. Within a year of Lucile's birth in 1904, Herman Pauling moved his family to Oswego, where he opened his own drugstore.[15] The business climate in Oswego was poor, so he moved his family to Condon in 1905.[16] In 1909, Pauling's grandfather, Linus, divorced his second wife and married a young schoolteacher who was almost the same age as his daughter Lucy. A few months later, he died of a heart attack, brought on by complications from nephritis.[17] Meanwhile, Herman Pauling was suffering from poor health and had regular sharp pains in his abdomen. Lucy's sister, Abbie, saw that Herman was dying and immediately called the family physician. The doctor gave Herman a sedative to reduce the pain, but it only offered temporary relief.[18] His health worsened in the coming months and he finally died of a perforated ulcer on June 11, 1910, leaving Lucy to care for Linus, Lucile and Pauline.[19] At age nine, Linus was a voracious reader. On May 12, 1910 his father wrote a letter to The Oregonian inviting suggestions of additional books to occupy his time.[1] Pauling first planned to become a chemist after being amazed by experiments conducted with a small chemistry lab kit by his friend, Lloyd A. Jeffress.[20] At high school, Pauling continued to conduct chemistry experiments, scavenging much of the equipment and material from an abandoned steel plant. With an older friend, Lloyd Simon, Pauling set up Palmon Laboratories. Operating from Simon's basement, the two approached local dairies to offer their services in performing butterfat samplings at cheap prices. Dairymen were wary of trusting two boys with the task, and as such, the business ended in failure.[21] By the fall of 1916, Pauling was a 15-year-old high school senior with enough credits to enter Oregon State University (OSU), known then as Oregon Agricultural College.[22] He did not have enough credits for two required American history courses that would satisfy the requirements for earning a high school diploma. He asked the school principal if he could take these courses concurrently during the spring semester, but the principal denied his request, and Pauling decided to leave the school in June without a diploma.[23] His high school, Washington High School in Portland, awarded him the diploma 45 years later, after he had won two Nobel Prizes.[24][25] During the summer, Pauling worked part-time at a grocery store, earning eight US dollars a week. His mother set him up with an interview with a Mr. Schwietzerhoff, the owner of a number of manufacturing plants in Portland. Pauling was hired as an apprentice machinist with a salary of 40 dollars per month. Pauling excelled at his job, and saw his salary soon raised to 50 dollars per month.[26] In his spare time, he set up a photography laboratory with two friends and found business from a local photography company. He hoped that the business would earn him enough money to pay for his future college expenses.[27] Pauling received a letter of admission from OAC in September 1917 and immediately gave notice to his boss and told his mother of his plans.[28] In October 1917, Pauling lived in a boarding house on the Corvallis campus with his cousin Mervyn and another man, using the $200 he had saved from odd jobs to finance his education. In his first semester, Pauling registered for two courses in chemistry, two in mathematics, mechanical drawing, introduction to mining and use of explosives, modern English prose, gymnastics and military drill.[29] Pauling fell in love with a freshman girl named Irene early in the school year. By the end of October, he had used up $150 of his savings on her, taking her to shows and games. He soon got a job at the girls' dormitory, working 100 hours a month chopping wood for stoves, cutting up beef and mopping up the kitchen. Despite the salary of 25 cents per hour, Pauling was still having trouble managing his finances. He began eating one hot meal a day at a restaurant off campus to keep his expenses down.[29] Pauling was active in campus life and founded the school's chapter of the Delta Upsilon fraternity.[30] After his second year, he planned to take a job in Portland to help support his mother, but the college offered him a position teaching quantitative analysis, a course he had just finished taking himself. He worked forty hours a week in the laboratory and classroom and earned $100 a month.[31] This allowed him to continue his studies at the college. In his last two years at school, Pauling became aware of the work of Gilbert N. Lewis and Irving Langmuir on the electronic structure of atoms and their bonding to form molecules.[31] He decided to focus his research on how the physical and chemical properties of substances are related to the structure of the atoms of which they are composed, becoming one of the founders of the new science of quantum chemistry. Pauling began to neglect his studies in humanities and social sciences. He had also exhausted the course offerings in the physics and mathematics departments. Professor Samuel Graf selected Pauling to be his teaching assistant in a high-level mathematics course.[32] During the winter of his senior year, Pauling was approached by the college to teach a chemistry course for home economics majors. It was in one of these classes that Pauling met his future wife, Ava Helen Miller.[33] In 1922, Pauling graduated from Oregon State University (known then as Oregon Agricultural College) with a degree in chemical engineering and went on to graduate school at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, California, under the guidance of Roscoe G. Dickinson. His graduate research involved the use of X-ray diffraction to determine the structure of crystals. He published seven papers on the crystal structure of minerals while he was at Caltech. He received his PhD in physical chemistry and mathematical physics, summa cum laude, in 1925. === The Pauling family moved back to Portland just after Linus began school. When he was nine, his father died, leaving Linus, his two younger sisters and their mother to make their own way in the world. This began a stretch of more than 15 years when Pauling tried to pursue his education, while his mother tried to get him to quit school and become the support of the family. He did not quit school. However, he did find many ingenious ways to make money and most of it went to help support his mother and sisters. By the time he was twelve he was a freshman at Washington High School in Portland. After four years of learning, with or without the help of his teachers, and of odd jobs (delivering milk, running film projectors, and even working in a shipyard, for example) he left high school. He did not graduate because the high school required their students to take a class in civics and Pauling saw no reason why he should since he could absorb any of that from his own reading. Later, after his Nobel Prize for Peace in 1962, the administration agreed that he had learned civics on his own by granting him his high school diploma. In the fall of 1917 Pauling enrolled in Oregon Agricultural College-now Oregon State University-in Corvallis, Oregon. He sailed through the freshman courses required of a chemical engineering major in spite of the fact that he was also working one hundred hours a month. He was not only supporting himself, but also providing the bulk of his family¹s support. This became more and more arduous after his mother became ill. In fact, he did not return to the college after his sophomore year because of the need for money. However, at the first of November of what would have been his junior year, he received an offer to become an instructor of quantitative analysis at Oregon Agricultural College, a course he had just taken as a sophomore! The offer included a salary of $100 a month and he gladly took it. He himself did not take any courses that year. He met his future wife, Ava Helen Miller, when she was a student in his quantitative analysis class. يتيم الاب في سن الـ 9 |
Christopher Michael Langan Biography- Christopher Langan is an American with an IQ was reported by “20/20″ and other media sources to have been measured at nearly 200. Though he used to work as a bouncer in Long Island, he rose to fame as “the smartest man in America” in 1999. Langan has developed “a theory of the relationship between mind and reality” which he calls the “Cognitive-Theoretic Model of the Universe and is still alive today. This man has one of the highest I.Q.’s ever on Earth. == Christopher Michael Langan (born c. 1952) is an Americanautodidact whose IQ was reported by 20/20 and other media sources to have been measured at between 195 and 210.[1] Billed by some media sources as "the smartest man in America",[2] he rose to prominence in 1999 while working as a bouncer on Long Island. Langan has developed his own "theory of the relationship between mind and reality" which he calls the "Cognitive-Theoretic Model of the Universe (CTMU)". Langan was born in San Francisco, California, and spent most of his early life in Montana. His mother was the daughter of a wealthy shipping executive but was cut off from her family; his father died or disappeared before he was born. He began talking at six months, taught himself to read before he was four, and was repeatedly skipped ahead in school. But he grew up in poverty and says he was beaten by his stepfather from when he was almost six to when he was about fourteen.[6] By then Langan had begun weight training, and forcibly ended the abuse, throwing his stepfather out of the house and telling him never to return.[7] Langan says he spent the last years of high school mostly in independent study, teaching himself "advanced math, physics, philosophy, Latin and Greek, all that".[8] After, he earned a perfect score on the SAT, despite taking a nap during the test.[6] Langan attended Reed College and later Montana State University, but faced with financial and transportation problems, and believing that he could teach his professors more than they could teach him, he dropped out.[8] He took a string of labor-intensive jobs, and by his mid-40s had been a construction worker, cowboy, forest service firefighter, farmhand, and, for over twenty years, a bouncer on Long Island. He says he developed a "double-life strategy": on one side a regular guy, doing his job and exchanging pleasantries, and on the other side coming home to perform equations in his head, working in isolation on his Cognitive-Theoretic Model of the Universe.[8] Wider attention came in 1999, when Esquire magazine published a profile of Langan and other members of the high-IQ community.[8] Billing Langan as "the smartest man in America", Mike Sager's account of the weight-lifting bouncer and his CTMU "Theory of Everything" sparked a flurry of media interest. Board-certified neuropsychologist Dr. Robert Novelly tested Langan's IQ for 20/20, which reported that Langan broke the ceiling of the test. Novelly was said to be astounded, saying: "Chris is the highest individual that I have ever measured in 25 years of doing this."[6] Articles and interviews highlighting Langan appeared in Popular Science,[9]The Times,[7]Newsday,[10]Muscle & Fitness (which reported that he could bench press 500 pounds),[11] and elsewhere. Langan was featured on 20/20,[6] interviewed on BBC Radio[12] and on Errol Morris's First Person,[13] and participated in an online chat at ABCNEWS.com.[14] He has written question-and-answer columns for New York Newsday,[15] The Improper Hamptonian,[16] and Men's Fitness.[17] In 2004, Langan moved with his wife Gina (née LoSasso), a clinical neuropsychologist, to northern Missouri, where he owns and operates a horse ranch.[18] On January 25, 2008, Langan was a contestant on NBC's1 vs. 100, where he won $250,000. In 1999 Langan and his wife, Gina LoSasso, formed a non-profit corporation called the "Mega Foundation" to "create and implement programs that aid in the development of extremely gifted individuals and their ideas."[19] In addition to his writings at the Foundation, Langan's media exposure at the end of the 1990s invariably included some discussion of his "Cognitive-Theoretic Model of the Universe" (often referred to by Langan as "CTMU"), and he was reported by Popular Science in 2001 to be writing a book about his work called Design for a Universe.[9] He has been quoted as saying that "you cannot describe the universe completely with any accuracy unless you're willing to admit that it's both physical and mental in nature"[11] and that his CTMU "explains the connection between mind and reality, therefore the presence of cognition and universe in the same phrase".[14] He calls his proposal "a true 'Theory of Everything', a cross between John Archibald Wheeler's 'Participatory Universe' and Stephen Hawking's 'Imaginary Time' theory of cosmology."[8] In conjunction with his ideas, Langan has claimed that "you can prove the existence of God, the soul and an afterlife, using mathematics."[6] Langan is a fellow of the International Society for Complexity, Information, and Design (ISCID),[20] a professional society which promotes intelligent design,[21] and has published a paper on his CTMU in the society's online journal Progress in Complexity, Information, and Design in 2002.[22] Later that year, he presented a lecture on his CTMU at ISCID's Research and Progress in Intelligent Design (RAPID) conference.[23] In 2004, Langan contributed a chapter to Uncommon Dissent, a collection of essays that question evolution and promote intelligent design, edited by ISCID cofounder and leading intelligent design proponent William Dembski.[24] Asked about creationism, Langan has said: I believe in the theory of evolution, but I believe as well in the allegorical truth of creation theory. In other words, I believe that evolution, including the principle of natural selection, is one of the tools used by God to create mankind. Mankind is then a participant in the creation of the universe itself, so that we have a closed loop. I believe that there is a level on which science and religious metaphor are mutually compatible.[14] Langan explains on his website that he believes "since Biblical accounts of the genesis of our world and species are true but metaphorical, our task is to correctly decipher the metaphor in light of scientific evidence also given to us by God". He explains In explaining this relationship, the CTMU shows that reality possesses a complex property akin to self-awareness. That is, just as the mind is real, reality is in some respects like a mind. But when we attempt to answer the obvious question "whose mind?", the answer turns out to be a mathematical and scientific definition of God. This implies that we all exist in what can be called "the Mind of God", and that our individual minds are parts of God's Mind. They are not as powerful as God's Mind, for they are only parts thereof; yet, they are directly connected to the greatest source of knowledge and power that exists. This connection of our minds to the Mind of God, which is like the connection of parts to a whole, is what we sometimes call the soul or spirit, and it is the most crucial and essential part of being human.[25] Langan has said elsewhere that he does not belong to any religious denomination, explaining that he "can't afford to let [his] logical approach to theology be prejudiced by religious dogma."[14] He calls himself "a respecter of all faiths, among peoples everywhere."[14] He was profiled in Malcolm Gladwell's 2008 book Outliers: The Story of Success,[26] where Gladwell looks at the reasons behind why Langan was unable to flourish in a university environment. Gladwell writes that although Langan "read deeply in philosophy, mathematics, and physics" as he worked on the CTMU, "without academic credentials, he despairs of ever getting published in a scholarly journal".[27] Gladwell's profile of Langan mainly portrayed him as an example of an individual who failed to realize his potential in part because of poor social skills resulting from, in Gladwell's speculation, being raised in poverty.[28] == يتيم الاب قبل الولادة. |
Michael Faraday - Michael Faraday was a phenomenal chemist and physicist who contributed to the fields of electrochemistry and electromagnetics. His inventions of electromagnetic devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became available for use in technology. Faraday was also the very first Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Michael Faraday, FRS (22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867) was an English scientist who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include that of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis. Although Faraday received little formal education he was one of the most influential scientists in history,[1] and historians of science[2] refer to him as having been the best experimentalist in the history of science.[3] It was by his research on the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a direct current that Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena.[4][5] He similarly discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and the laws of electrolysis. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology. As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine, invented an early form of the Bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and popularised terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion. Faraday ultimately became the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a lifetime position. Faraday was an excellent experimentalist who conveyed his ideas in clear and simple language; his mathematical abilities, however, did not extend as far as trigonometry or any but the simplest algebra. James Clerk Maxwell took the work of Faraday and others, and summarized it in a set of equations that is accepted as the basis of all modern theories of electromagnetic phenomena. On Faraday's uses of the lines of force, Maxwell wrote that they show Faraday "to have been in reality a mathematician of a very high order – one from whom the mathematicians of the future may derive valuable and fertile methods."[6] The SI unit of capacitance, the farad, is named in his honour. Albert Einstein kept a picture of Faraday on his study wall, alongside pictures of Isaac Newton and James Clerk Maxwell.[7] Physicist Ernest Rutherford stated; "When we consider the magnitude and extent of his discoveries and their influence on the progress of science and of industry, there is no honour too great to pay to the memory of Faraday, one of the greatest scientific discoverers of all time".[8] Early life Faraday was born in Newington Butts, which is now part of the London Borough of Southwark, but which was then a suburban part of Surrey.[10] His family was not well off; his father, James, was a member of the Glassite sect of Christianity. James Faraday moved his wife and two children to London during the winter of 1790 from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he had been an apprentice to the village blacksmith.[11] Michael was born the autumn of that year. The young Michael Faraday, who was the third of four children, having only the most basic school education, had to educate himself.[12] At fourteen he became the apprentice to George Riebau, a local bookbinder and bookseller in Blandford Street.[13] During his seven-year apprenticeship he read many books, including Isaac Watts' The Improvement of the Mind, and he enthusiastically implemented the principles and suggestions contained therein. At this time he also developed an interest in science, especially in electricity. Faraday was particularly inspired by the book Conversations on Chemistry by Jane Marcet. In 1812, at the age of twenty, and at the end of his apprenticeship, Faraday attended lectures by the eminent English chemist Humphry Davy of the Royal Institution and Royal Society, and John Tatum, founder of the City Philosophical Society. Many of the tickets for these lectures were given to Faraday by William Dance, who was one of the founders of the Royal Philharmonic Society. Faraday subsequently sent Davy a three-hundred-page book based on notes that he had taken during these lectures. Davy's reply was immediate, kind, and favourable. When Davy damaged his eyesight in an accident with nitrogen trichloride, he decided to employ Faraday as a secretary. When one of the Royal Institution's assistants, John Payne, was sacked, Sir Humphry Davy was asked to find a replacement, and appointed Faraday as Chemical Assistant at the Royal Institution on 1 March 1813. In the class-based English society of the time, Faraday was not considered a gentleman. When Davy set out on a long tour of the continent in 1813–15, his valet did not wish to go. Instead, Faraday went as Davy's scientific assistant, and was asked to act as Davy's valet until a replacement could be found in Paris. Faraday was forced to fill the role of valet as well as assistant throughout the trip. Davy's wife, Jane Apreece, refused to treat Faraday as an equal (making him travel outside the coach, eat with the servants, etc.), and made Faraday so miserable that he contemplated returning to England alone and giving up science altogether. The trip did, however, give him access to the scientific elite of Europe and exposed him to a host of stimulating ideas.[4] Faraday married Sarah Barnard (1800–1879) on 12 June 1821. They met through their families at the Sandemanian church, and he confessed his faith to the Sandemanian congregation the month after they were married. They had no children. Faraday was a devout Christian; his Sandemanian denomination was an offshoot of the Church of Scotland. Well after his marriage, he served as deacon and for two terms as an elder in the meeting house of his youth. His church was located at Paul's Alley in the Barbican. This meeting house was relocated in 1862 to Barnsbury Grove, Islington; this North London location was where Faraday served the final two years of his second term as elder prior to his resignation from that post. Biographers have noted that "a strong sense of the unity of God and nature pervaded Faraday's life and work." == Michael Faraday, the third of four children of James Faraday (1761–1810) and his wife, Margaret Hastwell Faraday (1764–1838), was born in Newington Butts on 22nd September 1791. James Faraday and all his children belonged to the small Christian sect called in Scotland the Glasites after their founder, John Glas, and in England the Sandemanians, after Robert Sandeman, who had brought these religious views to the country. Faraday worked as a blacksmith with James Boyd, a Sandemanian ironmonger of Welbeck Street, London. يتيم الاب في سن 21 |
Blaise Pascal Blaise Pascal was a French physicist, religious philosopher, and great mathematician. Pascal was a child prodigy and was taught a lot by his father. Pascal’s contributions included: mechanical calculators, concepts of pressure, concepts of vacuum, and the study of fluids. In literature, Pascal is regarded as one of the most important authors of the French classical period. His name (Pascal) has been given to the SI unit of pressure, some programming language, and Pascal’s law. Blaise Pascal (French pronunciation: ; 19 June 1623 – 19 August 1662), was a Frenchmathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Christianphilosopher. He was a child prodigy who was educated by his father, a tax collector in Rouen. Pascal's earliest work was in the natural and applied sciences where he made important contributions to the study of fluids, and clarified the concepts of pressure and vacuum by generalizing the work of Evangelista Torricelli. Pascal also wrote in defense of the scientific method. In 1642, while still a teenager, he started some pioneering work on calculating machines, and after three years of effort and 50 prototypes[1] he invented the mechanical calculator.[2][3] He built twenty of these machines (called pascal's calculator and later pascaline) in the following ten years.[4] Pascal was an important mathematician, helping create two major new areas of research: he wrote a significant treatise on the subject of projective geometry at the age of sixteen, and later corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on probability theory, strongly influencing the development of modern economics and social science. Following Galileo and Torricelli, in 1646 he refuted Aristotle's followers who insisted that nature abhors a vacuum. Pascal's results caused many disputes before being accepted. In 1646, he and his sister Jacqueline identified with the religious movement within Catholicism known by its detractors as Jansenism.[5] His father died in 1651. Following a mystical experience in late 1654, he had his "second conversion", abandoned his scientific work, and devoted himself to philosophy and theology. His two most famous works date from this period: the Lettres provinciales and the Pensées, the former set in the conflict between Jansenists and Jesuits. In this year, he also wrote an important treatise on the arithmetical triangle. Between 1658 and 1659 he wrote on the cycloid and its use in calculating the volume of solids. Pascal had poor health especially after his eighteenth year and his death came just two months after his 39th birthday.[6] Early life and education Pascal was born in Clermont-Ferrand; he lost his mother, Antoinette Begon, at the age of three. His father, Étienne Pascal (1588–1651), who also had an interest in science and mathematics, was a local judge and member of the "Noblesse de Robe". Pascal had two sisters, the younger Jacqueline and the elder Gilberte. In 1631, five years after the death of his wife, Étienne Pascal moved with his children to Paris. The newly arrived family soon hired Louise Delfault, a maid who eventually became an instrumental member of the family. Étienne, who never remarried, decided that he alone would educate his children, for they all showed extraordinary intellectual ability, particularly his son Blaise. The young Pascal showed an amazing aptitude for mathematics and science. Particularly of interest to Pascal was a work of Desargues on conic sections. Following Desargues' thinking, the sixteen-year-old Pascal produced, as a means of proof, a short treatise on what was called the "Mystic Hexagram", Essai pour les coniques ("Essay on Conics") and sent it—his first serious work of mathematics—to Père Mersenne in Paris; it is known still today as Pascal's theorem. It states that if a hexagon is inscribed in a circle (or conic) then the three intersection points of opposite sides lie on a line (called the Pascal line). Pascal's work was so precocious that Descartes was convinced that Pascal's father had written it. When assured by Mersenne that it was, indeed, the product of the son not the father, Descartes dismissed it with a sniff: "I do not find it strange that he has offered demonstrations about conics more appropriate than those of the ancients," adding, "but other matters related to this subject can be proposed that would scarcely occur to a sixteen-year-old child."[9] In France at that time offices and positions could be—and were—bought and sold. In 1631 Étienne sold his position as second president of the Cour des Aides for 65,665 livres.[10] The money was invested in a government bond which provided if not a lavish then certainly a comfortable income which allowed the Pascal family to move to, and enjoy, Paris. But in 1638 Richelieu, desperate for money to carry on the Thirty Years' War, defaulted on the government's bonds. Suddenly Étienne Pascal's worth had dropped from nearly 66,000 livres to less than 7,300. Like so many others, Étienne was eventually forced to flee Paris because of his opposition to the fiscal policies of Cardinal Richelieu, leaving his three children in the care of his neighbor Madame Sainctot, a great beauty with an infamous past who kept one of the most glittering and intellectual salons in all France. It was only when Jacqueline performed well in a children's play with Richelieu in attendance that Étienne was pardoned. In time Étienne was back in good graces with the cardinal, and in 1639 had been appointed the king's commissioner of taxes in the city of Rouen — a city whose tax records, thanks to uprisings, were in utter chaos. In 1642, in an effort to ease his father's endless, exhausting calculations, and recalculations, of taxes owed and paid, Pascal, not yet nineteen, constructed a mechanical calculator capable of addition and subtraction, called Pascal's calculator or the Pascaline. The Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris and the Zwinger museum in Dresden, Germany, exhibit two of his original mechanical calculators. Though these machines are early forerunners to computer engineering, the calculator failed to be a great commercial success. Because it was extraordinarily expensive the Pascaline became little more than a toy, and status symbol, for the very rich both in France and throughout Europe. However, Pascal continued to make improvements to his design through the next decade and built twenty machines in total. يتيم الام في سن الـ 3 |
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Galileo Galilei - Galileo Galilei was a legendery astronomer, physicist, mathematician, and philosopher. He played a major role in the scientific revolution. His achievements include the first studies of uniformly accelerated motion, improvements to the telescope, and astronomical observations. Galileo has been called the “father of modern observational astronomy”, the “father of modern physics”, the “father of science”, and “the Father of Modern Science.” With his discoveries and studies, Galileo was able to display his brilliance. == Galileo Galilei (Italian pronunciation: 15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642), was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy",[6] the "father of modern physics", the "father of science", and "the Father of Modern Science".[8] His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass and other instruments. Galileo's championing of heliocentrism was controversial within his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system.[9] He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism due to the absence of an observed stellar parallax. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, and they concluded that it could be supported as only a possibility, not an established fact.[9][10] Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest. It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he wrote one of his finest works, Two New Sciences, in which he summarised the work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials.[13][14] Early life Galileo was born in Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence), Italy, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, (a famous lutenist, composer, and music theorist; and Giulia Ammannati. Galileo became an accomplished lutenist himself and would have learned early from his father a healthy scepticism for established authority, the value of well-measured or quantified experimentation, an appreciation for a periodic or musical measure of time or rhythm, as well as the illuminative progeny to expect from a marriage of mathematics and experiment. Three of Galileo's five siblings survived infancy, and the youngest Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo) also became a noted lutenist and composer, although he contributed to financial burdens during Galileo's young adulthood. Michelangelo was incapable of contributing his fair share for their father's promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo for support of his musical endeavours and excursions. These financial burdens may have contributed to Galileo's early fire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income. Galileo was named after an ancestor, Galileo Bonaiuti, a physician, university teacher and politician who lived in Florence from 1370 to 1450; at that time in the late 14th century, the family's surname shifted from Bonaiuti (or Buonaiuti) to Galilei. Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the same church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence, where about 200 years later his more famous descendant Galileo Galilei was buried too. When Galileo Galilei was 8, his family moved to Florence, but he was left with Jacopo Borghini for two years. He then was educated in the Camaldolese Monastery at Vallombrosa, 35 km southeast of Florence. Although a genuinely pious Roman Catholic Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba. They had two daughters, Virginia in 1600 and Livia in 1601, and one son, Vincenzo, in 1606. Because of their illegitimate birth, their father considered the girls unmarriageable, if not posing problems of prohibitively expensive support or dowries, which would have been similar to Galileo's previous extensive financial problems with two of his sisters.[17] Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were sent to the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives.[18] Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life. Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of Galileo, and married Sestilia Bocchineri.[19] . In 1591 his father died and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the University of Padua, teaching geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610, During this period Galileo made significant discoveries in both pure fundamental science (for example, kinematics of motion and astronomy) as well as practical applied science (for example, strength of materials and improvement of the telescope). His multiple interests included the study of astrology, which at the time was a discipline tied to the studies of mathematics and astronomy.[ == Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa, Italy on February 15, 1564. He was the oldest of seven children. His father was a musician and wool trader, who wanted his son to study medicine as there was more money in medicine. At age eleven, Galileo was sent off to study in a Jesuit monastery. Galileo Galilei - Rerouted from Religon to Science After four years, Galileo had announced to his father that he wanted to be a monk. This was not exactly what father had in mind, so Galileo was hastily withdrawn from the monastery. In 1581, at the age of 17, he entered the University of Pisa to study medicine, as his father wished. عاش خياة فقر. مات له ثلاثة اخوة وهو صغير. عاش لمدة عامين وهو في الثامنة بعيدا عن العائلة. لا يعرف متى ماتت امه. يتيم اجتماعي. |
Martin Luther Early life- Martin Luther was a German professor, a monk, theologian, and church reformer. Luther’s theology challenged the authority of the church by stating that the Bible is the only infallible source of religious authority and that all baptized Christians are a priesthood of believers. According to Luther, salvation was attainable only by true repentance and faith in “Jesus as the Messiah.” His revolutionary ideas inspired the Protestant Reformation and changed the philosophy of Western civilization. == Martin Luther (German pronunciation: ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German monk, priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. His refusal to retract all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the Emperor. Luther taught that salvation is not earned by good deeds but received only as a free gift of God's grace through faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin. His theology challenged the authority of the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church by teaching that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge[2] and opposed sacerdotalism by considering all baptized Christians to be a holy priesthood.[3] Those who identify with Luther's teachings are called Lutherans. His translation of the Bible into the vernacular (instead of Latin) made it more accessible, causing a tremendous impact on the church and on German culture. It fostered the development of a standard version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation,[4] and influenced the translation into English of the King James Bible.[5] His hymns influenced the development of singing in churches.[6] His marriage to Katharina von Bora set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant priests to marry.[7] In his later years, while suffering from several illnesses and deteriorating health, Luther became increasingly antisemitic, writing that Jewish homes should be destroyed, their synagogues burned, money confiscated and liberty curtailed. These statements have contributed to his controversial status.[8] Birth and education Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder (or Ludher, later Luther) and his wife Margarethe (née Lindemann) on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Germany, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours. His family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council The religious scholar Martin Marty describes Luther's mother as a hard-working woman of "trading-class stock and middling means" and notes that Luther's enemies would later wrongly describe her as a whore and bath attendant. Monastic and academic lifeHe had several brothers and sisters, and is known to have been close to one of them, Jacob. Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and he was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a lay group called the Brethren of the Common Life, and Eisenach in 1498. The three schools focused on the so-called "trivium": grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell. In 1501, at the age of nineteen, he entered the University of Erfurt – which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse. The schedule called for waking at four every morning for what has been described as "a day of rote learning and often wearying spiritual exercises." He received his master's degree in 1505. In accordance with his father's wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the same university that year but dropped out almost immediately, believing that law represented uncertainty. Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, and Gabriel Biel. He was deeply influenced by two tutors, Bartholomaeus Arnoldi von Usingen and Jodocus Trutfetter, who taught him to be suspicious of even the greatest thinkers[15] and to test everything himself by experience.[16] Philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason but none about loving God, which to Luther was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, and he thereafter developed a love-hate relationship with Aristotle over the latter's emphasis on reason.[16] For Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed, and Scripture therefore became increasingly important to him.[16] He later attributed his decision to an event: on 2 July 1505, he was on horseback during a thunderstorm and a lightning bolt struck near him as he was returning to university after a trip home. Later telling his father he was terrified of death and divine judgment, he cried out, "Help! Saint Anna, I will become a monk!"[17] He came to view his cry for help as a vow he could never break. He left law school, sold his books, and entered a closed Augustinian friary in Erfurt on 17 July 1505.[18] One friend blamed the decision on Luther's sadness over the deaths of two friends. Luther himself seemed saddened by the move. Those who attended a farewell supper walked him to the door of the Black Cloister. "This day you see me, and then, not ever again," he said.[16] His father was furious over what he saw as a waste of Luther's education.[19] Luther dedicated himself to monastic life, devoting himself to fasting, long hours in prayer, pilgrimage, and frequent confession. He would later remark, "If anyone could have gained heaven as a monk, then I would indeed have been among them."[21] Luther described this period of his life as one of deep spiritual despair. He said, "I lost touch with Christ the Savior and Comforter, and made of him the jailor and hangman of my poor soul."[22] Johann von Staupitz, his superior, concluded that Luther needed more work to distract him from excessive introspection and ordered him to pursue an academic career. In 1507, he was ordained to the priesthood, and in 1508 began teaching theology at the University of Wittenberg. He received a Bachelor's degree in Biblical studies on 9 March 1508, and another Bachelor's degree in the Sentences by Peter Lombard in 1509.[24] On 19 October 1512, he was awarded his Doctor of Theology and, on 21 October 1512, was received into the senate of the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg, having been called to the position of Doctor in Bible.[25] He spent the rest of his career in this position at the University of Wittenberg. = Martin was sent by his father to Latin schools in Mansfeld and then Magdeburg. Luther later compared hisducation there to purgatory and hell. مارتن لوثر (Martin Luther) (أيسلبن، 10 نوفمبر1483 / 894 هـ - أيسلبن، 18 فبراير1546 / 953 هـ)، مصلح ديني مسيحي ألماني شهير، يعد الأب الروحي للإصلاح البروتستانتي. سيرتهولد في العاشر من نوفمبر سنة 1483 ببلدة أيسلبن (سكسونيا-أنهالت) ابناً لعامل المنجم هانس لوثر ومارغريت لينديمان. في أسرة صغيرة من عمال المناجم متواضعة ومتدينة وجـِد صارمة في تربية أبناءها. تعليمهمارتن لوثر بداية دعوتهالتحق لوثر في سنة 1497 بالمدرسة اللاتينية في ماغديبورغ لدى إخوة الحياة المشتركة، وهي جمعية دينية قروسطية الأصول. بناءاً على والده، التحق بجامعة إرفورت سنة 1501 وحصل على الإجازة الجامعية في سنة 1505. يقول عن نفسه أن قسوة أبويه عليه حملاه على دخول الدير الأوغسطيني في إرفورت سنة 1505. وفي سنة 1507 رسّم قسيساً، وفي سنة 1508 قام بتدريس الفلسفة في جامعة فتنبرج، وتولى شرح كتاب "الأخلاق إلى نيقوماخوس" لأرسطو. واستمر في ذلك عامي 1508 - 1509. وقد شعر بأن هذه المهمة شاقة عليه، كما يبدو، مما كتبه لصديقه يوهانس براون، القسيس في ايزنآخ، إذ يقول: " إذا أردت أن تعلم كيف حالي، فاعلم أنني في حال طيبة بفضل الله. لكن الدراسة صعبة شاقة خصوصاً دراسة الفلسفة، وكان بودي أن استبدل بها، منذ البداية، دراسة اللاهوت، أعني اللاهوت الذي يبحث عن بذرة الجوزة، ولباب حبة القمح، ونخاع العظام". ويعد مارتن لوثر رائد حركة الاصلاح الديني في ألمانيا ... في سنة 1511 سافر إلى روما، وهذه الرحلة هي التي غيرت مجرى حياته، ولما عاد منها بدأ سيرته مصلحاً للدين المسيحي. وكان البابا في روما، في أشد الحاجة إلى المال، ولم يجد سبيلاً للحصول عليه إلا عن طريق إصدار وبيع صكوك الغفران، وكان يطلب إلى الناس شراؤها ليغفر الله ذنوب أقربائهم أو من يشاؤون ممن يعذبون في المطهر بسبب ما اقترفوه من ذنوب. وكان يشرف على هذه العملية راهب دومنيكي يدعى يوحنا تتسل وذلك في سنة 1516، فراح يروّج لها بطرق ظاهرة أثارت ثائرة مارتن لوثر، فأصدر لوثر بياناً يحتوي على 95 قضية ضد صكوك الغفران. ولصق البيان على باب كنيسة فتنبرج، في يوم 31 أكتوبر1517، فسافر تتسل إلى فرانكفورت وأصدر من هناك بياناً فند فيه قضايا لوثر الـ 95 ،وقام بإحراق بيان لوثر علناً، فانتقم الطلاب في فتنبرج فأحرقوا بيان تتسل. هناك من يقول ان والدته كانت بائعة هوى . ليس يتيم. لكن الابرز في طفولته قسوة التربية حيث يقول عن نفسه أن قسوة أبويه عليه حملاه على دخول الدير الأوغسطيني في إرفورت سنة 1505. كما يقول عن دراسته بأنه اقرب الى العذاب وجهنم. يتيم اجتماعي. |
Robert Boyle Biography- Was a natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, inventor, and early gentleman scientist. Boyle was largely known for his works in physics and chemistry. He is best known for the creation of “Boyle’s law.” Boyle is recognized today as one of the first modern chemists and one of the founding fathers of chemistry. One of his works, “The Sceptical Chymist” is viewed as a legendary book in the field of chemistry. == Robert Boyle, FRS, (25 January 1627 – 31 December 1691) was a 17th-century natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor, also noted for his writings in theology. He has been variously described as Irish, English and Anglo-Irish, his father having come to Ireland from England during the time of the Plantations. Although his research clearly has its roots in the alchemical tradition, Boyle is largely regarded today as the first modern chemist, and therefore one of the founders of modern chemistry, and one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific method. He is best known for Boyle's law,[1] which describes the inversely proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a closed system.[2][3] Among his works, The Sceptical Chymist is seen as a cornerstone book in the field of chemistry. Early years Boyle was born in Lismore Castle, in County Waterford, Ireland, the seventh son and fourteenth child of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork and Catherine Fenton. Richard Boyle arrived in Dublin from England in 1588 during the Tudorplantations of Ireland and obtained an appointment as a deputy escheator. He had amassed enormous landholdings by the time Robert was born. Catherine Fenton was the daughter of English writer Geoffrey Fenton, who was born in Dublin in 1539, and Alice Weston, the daughter of Robert Weston, who was born in Lismore in 1541.[4] Middle years.As a child, Boyle was fostered to a local family, as were his elder brothers. Consequently, the eldest of the Boyle children had sufficient Irish at four years of age to act as a translator for his father. Boyle received private tutoring in Latin, Greek and French and when he was eight years old, following the death of his mother, he was sent to Eton College in England. His father's friend, Sir Henry Wotton, was then the provost of the college. During this time, his father hired a private tutor, Robert Carew, who had knowledge of Irish, to act as private tutor to his sons in Eton. However, "only Mr. Robert sometimes desires it [Irish] and is a little entered in it", but despite the "many reasons" given by Carew to turn their attentions to it, "they practice the French and Latin but they affect not the Irish".[6] After spending over three years at Eton, Robert travelled abroad with a French tutor. They visited Italy in 1641 and remained in Florence during the winter of that year studying the "paradoxes of the great star-gazer" Galileo Galilei, who was elderly but still living in 1641. Boyle returned to England from Continental Europe in mid-1644 with a keen interest for scientific research.[7] His father had died the previous year and had left him the manor of Stalbridge in Dorset, England and substantial estates in County Limerick in Ireland that he had acquired. From that time, Robert devoted his life to scientific research and soon took a prominent place in the band of enquirers, known as the "Invisible College", who devoted themselves to the cultivation of the "new philosophy". They met frequently in London, often at Gresham College, and some of the members also had meetings at Oxford. ==Having made several visits to his Irish estates beginning in 1647, Robert moved to Ireland in 1652 but became frustrated at his inability to make progress in his chemical work. In one letter, he described Ireland as "a barbarous country where chemical spirits were so misunderstood and chemical instruments so unprocurable that it was hard to have any Hermetic thoughts in it."[8] In 1654, Boyle left Ireland for Oxford to pursue his work more successfully. An inscription can be found on the wall of University College, Oxford the High Street at Oxford (now the location of the Shelley Memorial), marking the spot where Cross Hall stood until the early 19th century. It was here that Boyle rented rooms from the wealthy apothecary who owned the Hall. Reading in 1657 of Otto von Guericke's air-pump, he set himself with the assistance of Robert Hooke to devise improvements in its construction, and with the result, the "machina Boyleana" or "Pneumatical Engine", finished in 1659, he began a series of experiments on the properties of air.[1] An account of Boyle's work with the air pump was published in 1660 under the title New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air, and its Effects. Among the critics of the views put forward in this book was a Jesuit, Francis Line (1595–1675), and it was while answering his objections that Boyle made his first mention of the law that the volume of a gas varies inversely to the pressure of the gas, which among English-speaking people is usually called Boyle's Law after his name. The person that originally formulated the hypothesis was Henry Power in 1661. Boyle included a reference to a paper written by Power, but mistakenly attributed it to Richard Towneley. In continental Europe the hypothesis is sometimes attributed to Edme Mariotte, although he did not publish it until 1676 and was likely aware of Boyle's work at the time.[9] In 1663 the Invisible College became the Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, and the charter of incorporation granted by Charles II of England, named Boyle a member of the council. In 1680 he was elected president of the society, but declined the honour from a scruple about oaths. He made a "wish list" of 24 possible inventions which included "The Prolongation of Life", the "Art of Flying", "perpetual light", "making armour light and extremely hard", "A ship to saile with All Winds, and a Ship not to be sunk", "practicable and certain way of finding Longitudes", "potent druggs to alter or Exalt Imagination, Waking, Memory and other functions and appease pain, procure innocent sleep, harmless dreams etc". They are extraordinary because all but a few of the 24 have come true.[10] It was during his time at Oxford that Boyle was a Chevalier. The Chevaliers are thought to have been established by royal order a few years before Boyle's time at Oxford. The early part of Boyle's residence was marked by the actions of the victorious parliamentarian forces, consequently this period marked the most secretive period of Chevalier movements and thus little is known about Boyle's involvement beyond his membership. In 1668 he left Oxford for London where he resided at the house of his sister, Lady Ranelagh, in Pall Mall. روبيرت بويل (1627 - 1691) عالم إيرلندي يعد من أبرز الذين عملوا في مجال الغازات وخواصها، وهو الابن الرابع عشر لإيرل كورك الأول في إيرلندا وفي عام 1657 قام بتطوير مضخة هوائية وبدأ بدراسة العلاقة بين الضغوطوالحجوم للغازات المختلفة، ووضع بذلك قانوناُ يعرف الآن باسمه قانون بويل. كما أنه يعد أول من قام بفصل الميثانول من بين المنتجات الناتجة عن التقطير الاتلافي للخشب وذلك عام 1661. وهو أول من وضع تعريف للعنصر، وقال بأنه مادة نقية بسيطة لا يمكن تحليلها إلى ما هو أبسط منها بالطرق الكيميائية المعروفة يتيم الام في سن الثامنة وتمت تربيته عند عائلة بديلة. يتيم الام في سن الثامنة |
John Locke - John Locke was a phenomenal English philosopher. Locke’s ideas had a huge influence on the development of political philosophy and he is considered one of the most influential thinkers during the Enlightenment and one of the biggest contibutors to liberal theory. Locke’s influence is reflected in the American Declaration of Independence. Locke was the first philosopher to define the self through a continuity of “consciousness.” John Locke was an independent thinker and among the greatest philosophers. = John Locke; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704), widely known as the Father of Classical Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work had a great impact upon the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence.[5] Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as Hume, Rousseau and Kant. Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness. He postulated that the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa. Contrary to pre-existing Cartesian philosophy, he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived from senseperception.[6] Biography Locke's father, also called John, was a country lawyer and clerk to the Justices of the Peace in Chew Magna, who had served as a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian forces during the early part of the English Civil War. His mother was Agnes Keene. Both parents were Puritans. Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a small thatched cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, about twelve miles from Bristol. He was baptised the same day. Soon after Locke's birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton. In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Popham, a member of Parliament and his father's former commander. After completing his studies there, he was admitted to Christ Church, Oxford. The dean of the college at the time was John Owen, vice-chancellor of the university. Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. He found the works of modern philosophers, such as René Descartes, more interesting than the classical material taught at the university. Through his friend Richard Lower, whom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced to medicine and the experimental philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the Royal Society, of which he eventually became a member. Locke was awarded a bachelor's degree in 1656 and a master's degree in 1658. He obtained a bachelor of medicine in 1674, having studied medicine extensively during his time at Oxford and worked with such noted scientists and thinkers as Robert Boyle, Thomas Willis, Robert Hooke and Richard Lower. In 1666, he met Lord Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, who had come to Oxford seeking treatment for a liver infection. Cooper was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue. Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667 moved into Shaftesbury's home at Exeter House in London, to serve as Lord Ashley's personal physician. In London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham. Sydenham had a major effect on Locke's natural philosophical thinking – an effect that would become evident in the An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Locke's medical knowledge was put to the test when Shaftesbury's liver infection became life-threatening. Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Shaftesbury to undergo an operation (then life-threatening itself) to remove the cyst. Shaftesbury survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life. It was in Shaftesbury's household, during 1671, that the meeting took place, described in the Epistle to the reader of the Essay, which was the genesis of what would later become the Essay. Two extant Drafts still survive from this period. It was also during this time that Locke served as Secretary of the Board of Trade and Plantations and Secretary to the Lords and Proprietors of the Carolinas, helping to shape his ideas on international trade and economics. Shaftesbury, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Locke's political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury became Lord Chancellor in 1672. Following Shaftesbury's fall from favour in 1675, Locke spent some time travelling across France as tutor and medical attendant to Caleb Banks.[8] He returned to England in 1679 when Shaftesbury's political fortunes took a brief positive turn. Around this time, most likely at Shaftesbury's prompting, Locke composed the bulk of the Two Treatises of Government. While it was once thought that Locke wrote the Treatises to defend the Glorious Revolution of 1688, recent scholarship has shown that the work was composed well before this date,[9] and it is now viewed as a more general argument against absolute monarchy (particularly as espoused by Robert Filmer and Thomas Hobbes) and for individual consent as the basis of political legitimacy. Though Locke was associated with the influential Whigs, his ideas about natural rights and government are today considered quite revolutionary for that period in English history. Locke fled to the Netherlands in 1683, under strong suspicion of involvement in the Rye House Plot, although there is little evidence to suggest that he was directly involved in the scheme. In the Netherlands, Locke had time to return to his writing, spending a great deal of time re-working the Essay and composing the Letter on Toleration. Locke did not return home until after the Glorious Revolution. Locke accompanied William of Orange's wife back to England in 1688. The bulk of Locke's publishing took place upon his return from exile – his aforementioned Essay Concerning Human Understanding, the Two Treatises of Civil Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration all appearing in quick succession. Locke's close friend Lady Masham invited him to join her at the Mashams' country house in Essex. Although his time there was marked by variable health from asthma attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the Whigs. During this period he discussed matters with such figures as John Dryden and Isaac Newton. He died in 28 October 1704, and is buried in the churchyard of the village of High Laver,[10] east of Harlow in Essex, where he had lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since 1691. Locke never married nor had children. Events that happened during Locke's lifetime include the English Restoration, the Great Plague of London and the Great Fire of London. He did not quite see the Act of Union of 1707, though the thrones of England and Scotland were held in personal union throughout his lifetime. Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy were in their infancy during Locke's time. وفي 1661 مات والده بالسل، تاركاً له ثروة ضئيلة ورئتين ضعيفتين. ودرس الطب ولكنه لم يحصل على درجة فيه إلا في 1674. وفي الوقت نفسه قرأ ديكارت، وأحس بسحر الفلسفة حين تحدثت في جلاء ووضوح. وساعد روبرت بويل في تجاربه المعملية، وملأه الإعجاب بالمنهج العلمي. وفي 1667 تلقى دعوة للحضور والإقامة في قصر إكستر ليكون طبيباً خاصاً لأنطوني آشيلي كوبر الذي سرعان ما أصبح أرل شافتسبري الأول، وعضو الوزارة أيام شارل الثاني، ومنذ هذا التاريخ إلى ما بعده، وعلى الرغم من احتفاظه رسمياً بمنصبه في أكسفورد حتى 1683، وجد لوك نفسه غارقاً في خضم السياسة الإنجليزية حيث شكلت أحداثها ورجالاتها أفكاره يتيم الاب في سن الـ 21 . |
Charles Darwin Life- Charles Darwin was a naturalist and geologist who proposed that all species of life have evolved over time. The fact that evolution occurs became accepted by the scientific community and the general public. Darwin’s scientific discovery remains the foundation of biology. Darwin is yet another great thinker of his time and his theories are still studied and discussed today. == Charles Robert Darwin, FRS (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist.[I] He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors,[1] and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.[2] Darwin published his theory with compelling evidence for evolution in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts of transmutation of species.[3][4] By the 1870s the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing explanations and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.[5][6] In modified form, Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.[7][8] Darwin's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh; instead, he helped to investigate marine invertebrates. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion for natural science.[9] His five-year voyage on HMS Beagle established him as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell's uniformitarian ideas, and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author.[10] Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection.[11] Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority.[12] He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay which described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories.[13] Darwin's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature.[5] In 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, he examined earthworms and their effect on soil.[14] In recognition of Darwin's pre-eminence as a scientist, he was honoured with a state funeral and buried in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton.[15] Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history.[16][17] Childhood and education Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England on 12 February 1809 at his family home, the Mount, He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin, and Susannah Darwin (née Wedgwood). He was the grandson of Erasmus Darwin on his father's side, and of Josiah Wedgwood on his mother's side. Both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. Robert Darwin, himself quietly a freethinker, had baby Charles baptised in November 1809 in the Anglican St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury, but Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for natural history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. That July, his mother died. From September 1818 he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder.[19] Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire, before going to the University of Edinburgh Medical School with his brother Erasmus in October 1825. He found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy from John Edmonstone, a freed black slave who had accompanied Charles Waterton in the South American rainforest, and often sat with this "very pleasant and intelligent man".[20] In Darwin's second year he joined the Plinian Society, a student natural history group whose debates strayed into radicalmaterialism. He assisted Robert Edmond Grant's investigations of the anatomy and life cycle of marine invertebrates in the Firth of Forth, and on 27 March 1827 presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black spores found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech. One day, Grant praised Lamarck'sevolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished, but had recently read the similar ideas of his grandfather Erasmus and remained indifferent.[21] Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jameson's natural history course which covered geology including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.[22] This neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, who shrewdly sent him to Christ's College, Cambridge, for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican parson. As Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828.[23] He preferred riding and shooting to studying. His cousin William Darwin Fox introduced him to the popular craze for beetle collecting which Darwin pursued zealously, getting some of his finds published in Stevens' Illustrations of British entomology. He became a close friend and follower of botany professor John Stevens Henslow and met other leading naturalists who saw scientific work as religious natural theology, becoming known to these dons as "the man who walks with Henslow". When his own exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paley's Evidences of Christianity.[24] In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree.[25] Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June. He studied Paley's Natural Theology which made an argument for divine design in nature, explaining adaptation as God acting through laws of nature.[26] He read John Herschel's new book which described the highest aim of natural philosophy as understanding such laws through inductive reasoning based on observation, and Alexander von Humboldt's Personal Narrative of scientific travels. Inspired with "a burning zeal" to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics. In preparation, he joined Adam Sedgwick's geology course, then went with him in the summer for a fortnight to map strata in Wales.[27] After a week with student friends at Barmouth, he returned home to find a letter from Henslow proposing Darwin as a suitable (if unfinished) gentleman naturalist for a self-funded place with captain Robert FitzRoy, more as a companion than a mere collector, on HMS Beagle which was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America.[28] His father objected to the planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, Josiah Wedgwood, to agree to his son's participation. يتيم الام في سن الـ 8. |
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