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Denis Diderot Life and death</SPAN>(French: [dəni didʁo]) (October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer. He was a prominent person during the Enlightenment and is best known for serving as co-founder and chief editor of and contributor to the Encyclopédie along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert. Diderot also contributed to literature, notably with Jacques le fataliste et son maître (Jacques the Fatalist and his Master), which emulated Laurence Sterne in challenging conventions regarding novels and their structure and content, while also examining philosophical ideas about free will. Diderot is also known as the author of the dialogue, Le Neveu de Rameau (Rameau's Nephew), upon which many articles and sermons about consumer desire have been based. Denis Diderot was born in Langres, Champagne, and began his formal education at the jesuitic Collège jésuite in Langres. Early works</SPAN>His parents were Didier Diderot (1675–1759) a cutler, maître coutelier and his wife Angélique Vigneron (1677–1748). Three of five siblings survived to adulthood, Denise Diderot (1715–1797) and their youngest brother Pierre-Didier Diderot (1722–1787), and finally their sister Angélique Diderot (1720–1749). In 1732 he earned a master of arts degree in philosophy. Then he entered the Collège d'Harcourt in Paris. He abandoned the idea of entering the clergy and decided instead to study law. - His study of law was short-lived however and in 1734 Diderot decided to become a writer. - Because of his refusal to enter one of the learned professions, he was disowned by his father, and for the next ten years he lived a bohemian existence. In 1742 he befriended Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Then in 1743 he further alienated his father by marrying Antoinette Champion (1710–1796), a devout Roman Catholic. The match was considered inappropriate due to Champion's low social status, poor education, fatherless status and lack of a dowry. - She was about three years older than Diderot. - The marriage, in October 1743 produced one surviving child, a girl. Her name was Angélique, after both Diderot's dead mother and sister. - The death of his sister, a nun, from overwork in the convent may have affected Diderot's opinion of religion. She is assumed to have been the inspiration for his novel about a nun, La Religieuse, in which he depicts a woman who is forced to enter a monastery where she suffers at the hands of the other nuns in the community. Diderot had affairs with the writer Madeleine de Puisieux and with Sophie Volland (1716-1784). His letters to Sophie Volland contain some of the most vivid of all the insights that we have of the daily life of the philosophic circle of Paris during this time period. Though his work was broad and rigorous, it did not bring Diderot riches. He secured none of the posts that were occasionally given to needy men of letters; he could not even obtain the bare official recognition of merit which was implied by being chosen a member of the Académie française. When the time came for him to provide a dowry for his daughter, he saw no alternative than to sell his library. When Catherine II of Russia heard of his financial troubles she commissioned an agent in Paris to buy the library. She then requested that the philosopher retain the books in Paris until she required them, and act as her librarian with a yearly salary. From 1773 for two years Diderot spent some months at the empress's court in Saint Petersburg. Diderot died of gastrointestinal problems in Paris on July 31, 1784, and was buried in the city's Église Saint-Roch. His heirs sent his vast library to Catherine II, who had it deposited at the National Library of Russia. Diderot's earliest works included a translation of Temple Stanyan's History of Greece (1743); with two colleagues, François-Vincent Toussaint and Marc-Antoine Eidous, he produced a translation of Robert James's Medicinal Dictionary[1] (1746–1748); at about the same time he published a free rendering of Shaftesbury's Inquiry Concerning Virtue and Merit (1745), with some original notes of his own. In 1746 he wrote his first original work: the Pensées philosophiques,[2] and he added to this a short complementary essay on the sufficiency of natural religion. He then composed a volume of bawdy stories Les bijoux indiscrets (1748); in later years he repented this work. In 1747 he wrote the Promenade du sceptique, an allegory pointing first at the extravagances of Catholicism; second, at the vanity of the pleasures of the world which is the rival of the church; and third, at the desperate and unfathomable uncertainty of the philosophy which professes to be so high above both church and world. Diderot's celebrated Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient ("Letter on the Blind") (1749), introduced him to the world as a daringly original thinker. The subject is a discussion of the interrelation between man's reason and the knowledge acquired through perception (the five senses). The title, "Letter on the Blind For the Use of Those Who See", also evoked some ironic doubt about who exactly were "the blind" under discussion. In the essay a blind English mathematician named Saunderson argues that since knowledge derives from the senses, then mathematics is the only form of knowledge that both he and a sighted person can agree about. It is suggested that the blind could be taught to read through their sense of touch (a later essay, Lettre sur les sourds et muets, considered the case of a similar deprivation in the deaf and mute). What makes the Lettre sur les aveugles so remarkable, however, is its distinct, if undeveloped, presentation of the theory of variation and natural selection.[3] This powerful essay ... revolves around a remarkable deathbed scene in which a dying blind philosopher, Saunderson, rejects the arguments of a providential God during his last hours. Saunderson's arguments are those of a Neo-Spinozist, Naturalist, and Fatalist, using a sophisticated notion of the self-generation and natural evolution of species without Creation or supernatural intervention. The notion of "thinking matter" is upheld and the "argument from design" discarded ... as hollow and unconvincing. The work appeared anonymously ... and was vigorously suppressed by the authorities. Diderot, who had been under police surveillance since 1747, was swiftly identified as the author ... and was imprisoned for some months at Vincennes, where he was visited almost daily by Rousseau, at the time his closest and most assiduous ally.[4] After signing a letter of submission and promising never to write anything prejudicial against the religion again (with the result that his most controversial works were henceforth published only after his death), Diderot was released from the dungeons of the Vincennes fortress after three months. In collaboration with d'Alembert, he subsequently embarked on his greatest project, The Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. == |
Denis Diderot - Biography
Denis Diderot (October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic and writer. Born at Langres and was schooled by Jesuits. He attended the University of Paris and was awarded a masters of art degree. An avid reader of classics like Horace and Homer, Diderot's insatiable appetite for reading and literature also extended to women, thereby disappointing his father who had hoped he would continue on into medicine or law. Instead, Diderot lived the life of a bohemian, bouncing from tutorships, freelance writing gigs also working at one time for Clement de Ris a prominent attorney and as a bookseller's hack. By 1743 he married Anne Toinette Champion although the relationship did not prosper and Diderot found a new love, Madeleine de Puisieux a fellow writer. It was in the 1740s that he also became a translator of English books which began to gain him some notoriety. Diderot is most recognized as the force behind the Encyclopédie, the foremost encyclopedia to be published in France at the eve of the French Revolution, but he also published a other works, comedies and bawdy tales as well as to assist his friend Friedrich Grimm in his collection of tales. Before the monumental task of putting together the Encyclopédie, Diderot became known for Essai sur la merite et la virtu (1745) and then the publication of Pensees philosophique (1746), a work that both atheism and Christianity alike but was still burned by the Parisian parliament. He also gained interest for his support of John Locke's theory of knowledge in his Lettres sur les aveugles (1749) where he attacked conventional morality and as a result was imprisoned at Vincennes for three months. His network of friends included Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Claude Adrien Helvétius, Abbé Raynal, Lawrence Sterne, Jean-François Marmontel, and Michel-Jean Sedaine. In 1747, the project of what would become the massive Encyclopédie was initially offered up to Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (a mathematician who eventually dropped out of the project) as a chance to co-edit the French translation of Chamber's Cyclopedia, or Universal Dictionary of the Arts and Science, but they were disenchanted with the material in the tome and preferred to set out to compile their own encyclopedia. The Encyclopédie was finally published in 1750s but the first edition of Encyclopédie was greatly amended by the editor, Andre Le Breton, (to Diderot's dismay) due to concerns about its content and the second full edition. This massive set of volumes at the time of publication were sold by subscription to not only wealthy individuals but they were also bought by small private libraries that gave access to the public, perhaps for a small fee. The impact of the Encyclopédie was widespread in France and Europe at large for by 1789 more than 25,000 copies had been distributed. There was talk about a distribution center in the United States through Benjamin Franklin, but there is no evidence that this came through. What Diderot accomplished was to create one of the most important books of the Eighteenth Century. For Diderot along with his contributors, the common purpose of which was "to further knowledge and, by so doing, strike a resounding blow against reactionary forces in church and state." How Diderot imagined this happening was by providing educational materials on technologies for what Proust broke down into three goals: "(a) to reach a large public; (b) to encourage research at all stages of production; and (c) to publish all the secrets of manufacturing." By researching trades and breaking down their application and uses, the makers of the Encyclopédie hoped to propel liberal economic views rather than mercantilist system that had been in place protecting guilds and craftsmen. We can see the effects of the philosophy that drove the work, one of rationalism and "faith in progress of the human mind" at play in the French Revolution, hence the towering importance of this tome. What this comes down to in the Encyclopédie itself is intellectual work, that of curating and explaining the different jobs, crafts, or otherwise known to the writers as mechanical arts. While this was not the sole concern for entries for such inquires as natural sciences were included, the largest proportion of the 2,900 plates were dedicated to technology. D'Alembert writes in the "Preliminary Discourse of the Encyclopedia" that "The discovery of the compass is no less advantageous to the human race than the explanation of the properties of the compass needle is to physics." This is first noticeable in the book by the fold out page that lays out the structure of the Encyclopédie. Following Bacon's lead, Diderot broke down human faculties by memory, reason and imagination, corresponding them to history, philosophy and poetry. In his Aristotelian diagram, a reader can see that the most worked out of these is reason and the mechanical arts and while history and poetry are present, the focus of the Encyclopédie was to explicate varying technologies as to make them understood by anyone. Also concerning the breakdown of knowledge in this diagram, it is important to note that while this organization of information was paid a great deal of attention, the articles in the Encyclopédie were still laid out alphabetically for ease of use; their category of knowledge would then be shown next to its heading. The most important way in which Diderot was able to make clear the workings of technologies within a craft or mechanical art was by supplementing the text with engravings of the tools used. It is from these engravings that we can see the beginnings of modern technological and mechanical instruction. For example, the section on agriculture represents not only a pastoral scene of hills and people in the fields, but also shows a catalog of the machinery used to do the work. The implements are not illustrated in use, but lined up categorically. Many of the plates that show technology represent the elements of each in a similar fashion although those that show the details of a craft usually show an overview of a shop in lieu of the workers in the fields. This type of explication of craft was received by some with fear that with secrets unveiled, people would lose their jobs, but Diderot writes in his Prospectus that "It is handicraft which makes the artist, and it is not in Books that one can learn to manipulate." This was part of the reason that Diderot had such problems with Chamber's Encyclopedia, for he thought Chambers was too stuck in books and hence Diderot's emphasis that his contributors visit the shops and study particular mechanical arts in depth before writing about them. The material chosen to include in the Encyclopédie and the engravings that accompany them is enough to prove it to be a groundbreaking work, but there is another element that is of particular interest to contemporary scholars. This element is the renvois which in old French means to send back. Today we are most familiar with this concept as labeled "hyperlink" and it has its basis in the Encyclopédie. For instance, in the article "Agriculture" there is a place when the reader is directed to an article on leaves to learn more about pruning." In a 2009 article concerning this fact, Michael Zimmer argues that this is not any different than so-called new media, the Internet and its applications based on hypertext and hyperlink for these connections "[allow] readers to relinquish their position as passive receivers of preorganized information, to subvert traditional knowledge structures and hierarchies, and to become active and integral participants in the production of knowledge." So while the Encyclopédie attempted to structure thought into memory, imagination and reason which was revolutionary in itself in that it explicated previously privileged information, it was also laying the groundwork for the revolutions in thought that we undergo today. At the time, however, Diderot was not able to make much of a living off of the Encyclopédie and long-time friend, Grimm appealed to Catherine of Russia who bought his library in 1765 as well as to provide him with a salary and use of the library as long as he lived. He continued to be a source of inspiration for the French revolution as Saint-Beuve remarked, "the first great writer who belonged wholly and undividedly to modern democratic society." He died of emphysema in Paris in 1784. |
French philosopher, and man of letters, the chief editor of the L'Encyclopédie, one of the principal literary monuments of the Age of Enlightenment. The work took 26 years of Diderot's life. In seventeen volumes of text and eleven of illustrations, it presented the achievements of human learning in a single work. Besides offering a summary of information on all theoretical knowledge, it also challenged the authority of the Catholic Church. "The good of the people must be the great purpose of government. By the laws of nature and of reason, the governors are invested with power to that end. And the greatest good of the people is liberty. It is to the state what health is to the individual." (from L'Encyclopédie) Denis Diderot was born at Langres, the son of a successful cutler. He was first educated by the Jesuits (1728-32). During this period he devoured books of all kinds – his favorites were such classics as Horace and Homer. In 1732 Diderot received the master of arts degree from the University of Paris. His father expected him to study medicine or law, but Diderot spent his time with books and women. When his financial support was ended, Diderot then worked for the attorney Clément de Ris (1732-34), and as a tutor, freelance writer, and bookseller's hack (1733-44). After ten bohemian years, he married in 1743 Anne Toinette Champion. To support his own family, he began to translate texts from English to France. After some years his marriage turned sour. When his wife said she would not touch a book which did not offer something spiritually uplifting, Diderot's remedy was to read her only raunchy works. "What amuses me is," Diderot confessed in a letter, "that she treats everyone who visits her to a repeat of what I have just read her, so conversation doubles the effect of the remedy. Diderot found also a new love, Madeleine de Puisieux. She was a writer, whose best work, Les caractères (1750-51), appeared during their affair. With Sophie Volland Diderot had a liaison from about 1755 until her death in 1784. Diderot's letters to her belong to the important sources of his personal life and reveal ways of thinking in that era. "It has been said that love robs those who have it of their wit, and gives it to those who have none." (Paradoxe sur le comédien) -دو ان اهم الاحداث التي اثرت فيه هو موت اخته الراهبة بسبب سوء معاملة الراهبات لها. تخلى عنه والده بسبب رفضه دراسة الطب او القانون, - عاش حياة الصعاليك لمدرة عشر سنوات بسبب تخلي والده عنه. - يبدو ان موت والدته كان له اثر كبير ايضا على شخصه. مأزوم ويتيم اجتماعي بسبب تخلي والده عنه. يتيم اجتماعي. |
Journey to the End of the Night by Louis-Ferdinand Celine, France, (1894-1961) Told in the first person, the novel is based on the author's own experiences during the First World War, in French colonial Africa, in the USA - where he worked for a while at the Ford factory in Detroit - and later as a young doctor in a working-class suburb in Paris. Celine's disgust with human folly, malice, greed and the chaotic state in which man has left society lies behind the bitterness that distinguishes his idiosyncratic, colloquial and visionary writing and gives it its force. == Journey to the End of Night (Voyage au bout de la nuit, 1932) is the first novel of Louis-Ferdinand Céline. This semi-autobiographical work describes antihero Ferdinand Bardamu. Bardamu is involved with World War I, colonial Africa, and post-World War I America (where he works for the Ford Motor Company), returning in the second half of the work to France, where he becomes a medical doctor and establishes a practice in a poor Paris suburb, the fictional La Garenne-Rancy. The novel also satirizes the medical profession and the vocation of scientific research. The disparate elements of the work are linked together by recurrent encounters with Léon Robinson, a hapless character whose experiences parallel, to some extent, those of Bardamu. Voyage au bout de la nuit is a nihilistic novel of savage, exultant misanthropy, combined, however, with cynical humour. Céline expresses an almost unrelieved pessimism with regard to human nature, human institutions, society, and life in general. Towards the end of the book, the narrator Bardamu, who is working at an insane asylum, remarks: …I cannot refrain from doubting that there exist any genuine realizations of our deepest character except war and illness, those two infinities of nightmare," ("…je ne peux m'empêcher de mettre en doute qu'il existe d'autres véritables réalisations de nos profonds tempéraments que la guerre et la maladie, ces deux infinis du cauchemar,") A clue to understanding Celine's Voyage is the trauma he suffered during his experience of the Great War 1914-1918. This is revealed by a study of biographical and literary research on Celine, histories of the war, diaries of his cavalry regiment, and literature on the trauma of war. [1] Celine's experience of the war leads to "…the obsession, the recurrent anguish, the refusal, the delirium, the violence, the pacifism, the anti-Semitic aberration of the 30’s, [and] his philosophy of life . . . ."[2] Literary style Céline's first novel is most remarkable perhaps for its style. Céline makes extensive use of ellipsis and hyperbole. He writes with the flow of natural speech patterns and writes vernacular, while also employing more erudite elements. This influenced French literature considerably. The novel enjoyed popular success and a fair amount of critical acclaim when it was published during October 1932. Albert Thibaudet, perhaps the greatest of the entre-deux-guerres critics, said that during January 1933 it was still a common topic of conversation at dinner parties in Paris (Henri Godard, "Notice," in Céline, Romans, vol. 1 [Paris: Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1981], p. 1262). Influence and legacyWill Self has written that Journey to the End of the Night "is the novel, perhaps more than any other, that inspired me to write fiction".[3] ==The song End of the Night by The Doors references this book, as it had a great influence on the work of Jim Morrison Kurt Vonnegut cited Journey as one of his influences in Palm Sunday, and Bardamu's misadventures appear to have influenced Joseph Heller's Catch-22. Charles Bukowski makes reference to Journey in a number of his novels and short stories, and employs prose techniques borrowed from Céline. Bukowski wrote in Notes of a Dirty Old Man that "Céline was the greatest writer of 2000 years."[4] The Xiu Xiu song "F.T.W." references the book. The Charlotte Gainsbourg song "Voyage" also references the book's French and English titles. In Jean-Luc Godard's 1965 dystopian science fiction film Alphaville, protagonist Lemmy Caution dismisses a taxi driver's offer of route options to his destination by stating that he is on "a journey to the end of the night". The film depicts the use of poetry as a weapon against a sentient computer system. Italian film director Sergio Leone was a fan of the novel and was considering a film adaptation in the 1960s. The poem inspired the Israeli singer and songwriter Aya Korem to write a song called "Tania". It is a sad yet satirical song, and Journey is credited in the liner notes of the album. The title of noise/punk band Heroine Sheiks' 2008 release Journey to the Edge of the Knife is a reference to the novel. The movie Bringing out the Dead by Martin Scorsese contains a scene showing the book on a shelf in Frank Pierce's home. The movie In the House by François Ozon contains a scene showing the book lied on a rug. Brooklyn-based hardcore punk band Swallowed Up included a spoken sample of text from the novel on a track from their 2010 split LP with Black Kites. سفر إلى آخر الليل من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة سفر إلى آخر الليل هي الرواية الأولى للويس فرديناند سيلين. هذا العمل شبه سيرة ذاتية يصف الشخصية الرئيسية فرديناند باردامو. المقدمة ربما لم يهاجم أحد فكر لويس - فرديناند سيلين، بقدر ما هاجمه ثلاثي دي بوفوار - سارتر - ألبير كامو. فهو، المفكر والكاتب الفوضوي اليميني- الذي لم يتورع عن مناصرة النازيين خلال الثلاثينات والاربعينات، في شكل أو في آخر- كان يمثل بالنسبة إلى الثلاثي التقدمي، اليساري إلى حد ما، قمة التخلف الفكري في المواقف السياسية. ومع هذا كان سارتر يحب ان يقول انه كثيرا ما فكر بشخصية سيلينية، هي شخصية باردامو فيما كان منكبا على كتابة «الغثيان»، كما ان كامو لم يخف ابدا تأثره بالشخصية نفسها حين كتب «الغريب». اما سيمون دي بوفوار فحسبنا لتبين موقفها الحقيقي، الادبي بخاصة، من سيلين ان ننقل ما كتبته في مذكراتها عنه: «... لقد كنا في ذلك الحين نقرأ كل ما يصدر من كتب: اما الكتاب الفرنسي الذي كان ذا القيمة الأكبر بالنسبة الينا فكان، خلال ذلك العام «سفر إلى آخر الليل» لسيلين... حيث كنا نحفظ بعض مقاطع الكتاب غيبا. ذلك ان فوضى سيلين كانت تبدو بالنسبة الينا، شديدة القرب من نزعتنا الفوضوية... وهو أيضا كان يهاجم الحرب والكولونيالية والتفاهة والافكار السائدة... كان يهاجم المجتمع بأسلوب وبنغمة يفتناننا. في ذلك الحين كان سيلين صاغ اداة جديدة: كتابة لها حيوية الكلام العادي (...). وهذه الكتابة هي التي جعلت سارتر يتخلى نهائيا عن اللغة المفخمة التي كان يستخدمها من قبل». القصةاذا، لئن كان كتّاب فرنسا التقدميون في ذلك الحين اوسعوا سيلين شتما ونقدا بسبب مواقفه السياسية، فإن هذا لم يمنعهم ابدا من أن يضعوا روايته «سفر إلى آخر الليل»، وهي الرواية نفسها التي يشكل باردامو شخصيتها الرئيسة، في مكانها الصحيح، كرواية رائدة ينظر إليها الجميع على انها واحدة من اروع الروايات الفرنسية التي كتبت خلال النصف الأول من القرن العشرين، بل واحدة من أكبر الروايات الأوروبية، إلى جانب «يوليس» جويس، و«الرجل البلا مزايا» لروبرت موتسيل، وحتى «البحث عن الزمن الضائع» لبروست. ورواية «سفر إلى آخر الليل»، كانت أول رواية طويلة نشرها سيلين خلال مساره المهني، وكان ذلك في العام 1932 حيث نالت على الفور جائزة «رينودو». وهو استوحاها، على رغم طابعها الروائي الخالص، من ذكريات حياته وبعض مغامراته، خلال الحرب العالمية الأولى مضيفا إليها معرفته بالقارة الأفريقية حيث كان اكتشف مبكرا «مساوئ الكولونيالية»، إضافة إلى نظرته المبكرة إلى الولايات المتحدة التي رأى في مسيرتها انتصارا كبيرا لقيمة العمل وللرأسمالية. ناهيك، أخيرا، بتجربته الخاصة كطبيب في الضواحي. ولم تكن «سفر إلى آخر الليل» الرواية الوحيدة التي استعان سيلين، على كتابتها، بتجاربه أو ذكرياته الشخصية، إذ تجمع الدراسات التي تتناول سيلين، كذلك، ان الاوساط التي امضى فيها طفولته ومراهقته (اوساط البورجوازية الصغيرة من تجّار وموظفين) شكلت خلفية روايته التالية "موت بالتقسيط"، كما ان «الأغطيـة الجميلة» تعالج هزيمة فرنسا في العام 1939 كما عاشها هو شخصيا، فيما نجد ان تجربته في العيش في لندن، حيث انتدب لفترة عاش خلالها بعض أكثر سنوات حياته مرحا خلال الاعوام الأولى للحرب العالمية الأولى، شكلت خلفية روايتيه «عصابة المهرج» و«جسر لندن». إن هذا كله يؤكد - بالطبع - ذاتية سيلين في كتابته الروائية. غير ان هذا الجانب الذاتي يظل الأكثر طغيانا في « سفر إلى آخر الليل»، إذ ان الرواية مبنية اصلا، وفي الجزء الأساس منها على تجربته حين عمل في القسم الطبي في مندوبية عصبة الأمم في ألمانيا فترة، هي التي قادته لاحقا بالتأكيد إلى ذلك الموقف المهادن للنازيين، أو حتى، المناصر لهم، والذي ظل لعنة احاطت به في وطنه فرنسا، حتى رحيله. وهو إذ عاد من ألمانيا - في حياته الخاصة كما في الرواية - عمل طبيبا في ضاحية كليشي، شمال غربي باريس، والتي كانت تعد في ذلك الحين، خلال الربع الأول من القرن العشرين، ضاحية البائسين. فهو هناك اكتشف البؤس والظلم الاجتماعيين ليجعل منهما موضوع روايته الأولى ليعير بطلها باردامو، تجاربه الشخصية، ما مكنه من أن يرسم «صورة لا رحمة فيها لمشهد عبثية الحياة»... تلك الحياة المكونة من «الاكاذيب الصغيرة وضروب قسوة الانسان على اخيه الانسان». ان العالم الذي صوره سيلين في هذا العمل، يبدو على الدوام لا مهرب منه ولا يحمل بارقة امل... ومع هذا ها هو سيلين نفسه يقول لنا: «ما هي خلفية هذه الحكاية كلها؟ لست ادري... اذ ما من أحد فهم حقا هذه الخلفية... ومع هذا اقول لكم ببساطة انها الحب... الحب الذي لا نزال نجرؤ على التحدث عنه وسط هذا الجحيم». قسم سيلين روايته هذه - وكان هذا التقسيم جديدا إلى حد ما على الادب الفرنسي في ذلك الحين - إلى مشاهد وفصول تتفاوت طولا وكثافة، من دون أن يعطيها ارقاما... وكأنه شاء للزمن العابر، لا للرقم، ان يحدد مسار احداث هذه الرواية. والفصل الأول منها يبدأ عشية اندلاع الحرب العالمية الأولى، لينتهي الفصل الأخير في العام 1928، اي بعد عشر سنوات من توقيع الهدنة التي انهت تلك الحرب. وكما يحدث في الروايات «البيكارية»، حيث لا وجود لحبكة واحدة، يدفع سيلين بطله (اي اناه - الآخر، بمعنى من المعاني) إلى التجول في زوايا الأرض الأربع، تقوده الصدف التي لا تخطيط مسبقا لها. وهكذا، في الفصل الأول نرانا نلاحق باردامو، في جبهة القتال، ثم نتبعه إلى الجهات الخلفية في المستعمرات الفرنسية الأفريقية (الكونغو خاصة) قبل أن ننتقل معه إلى الولايات المتحدة الاميركية. ثم في قسم ثان من الرواية نعيش معه وقد انصرف إلى ممارسة الطب في الضاحية الباريسية. لكن في الوقت نفسه نراه يقوم بأداء ادوار تافهة في صالة أحد الملاهي في «الجادّات الكبرى» حيث كانت المسارح وأماكن اللهو تصخب في ذلك الحين، ثم نراه بعد ذلك ينضم إلى عيادة للطب العقلي يديرها طبيب مخضرم هو الدكتور باريتون. وفي خضم ذلك كله، ابتكر سيلين لبطله، شخصية أخرى غارقة في بؤسها: روبنسون الذي لا يكف عن الالتقاء به في لحظات انعطافية من الرواية، ليتحول بين الحين والآخر إلى شبيه أو قرين له، يرعبه مصيره ويبدو غير تواق إلى عيشه بنفسه. وروبنسون هذا سيموت عند نهاية الرواية، ما يوفر على باردامو، الذي تتكوّن مسيرته كلها من هروب إلى الامام، ان يموت، هو، ذلك الموت المأسوي الذي لولا وجود روبنسون لكان من نصيبه. ولا بد من أن نذكر هنا ان باردامو هو الذي يروي لنا احداث الرواية بنفسه، ما يعطينا الانطباع بأننا لن نعرف أكثر مما يعرف هو، ولن نعيش سوى أسلوبه في عيش حياته. |
Louis-Ferdinand Celine's revulsion and anger at what he considered the idiocy and hypocrisy of society explodes from nearly every page of this novel. Filled with slang and obscenities and written in raw, colloquial language, Journey to the End of the Night is a literary symphony of violence, cruelty and obscene nihilism. This book shocked most critics when it was first published in France in 1932, but quickly became a success with the reading public in Europe, and later in America where it was first published by New Directions in 1952. The story of the improbable yet convincingly described travels of the petit-bourgeois (and largely autobiographical) antihero, Bardamu, from the trenches of World War I, to the African jungle, to New York and Detroit, and finally to life as a failed doctor in Paris, takes the readers by the scruff and hurtles them toward the novel's inevitable, sad conclusion
== Louis-Ferdinand Céline was the pen name of Louis Ferdinand Auguste Destouches (27 May 1894 – 1 July 1961). He was a French novelist, pamphleteer and physician. The name Céline was the first name of his grandmother. He is considered one of the most influential writers of the twentieth century, developing a new style of writing that modernized both French and world literature Early life The only child of Fernand Destouches and Marguerite-Louise-Céline Guilloux, he was born Louis Ferdinand Auguste Destouches in 1894 at Courbevoie, just outside Paris in the Seine département (now Hauts-de-Seine). The family came originally from Brittany. His father was a minor functionary in an insurance firm and his mother was a lacemaker.[2] In 1905 he was awarded his Certificat d'études, after which he worked as an apprentice and messenger boy in various trades.[2] Between 1908 and 1910 his parents sent him to Germany and England for a year in each country in order to acquire foreign languages for future employment.[2] From the time he left school, until the age of eighteen, Céline worked various jobs, leaving or losing them after only short periods of time. He often found himself working for jewellers, first, at eleven, as an errand boy, and later as a salesperson for a local goldsmith. Although he was no longer being formally educated, he bought schoolbooks with the money he earned, and studied by himself. It was around this time that Céline started to want to become a doctor.[3] World War I and AfricaIn 1912, in what Céline described as an act of rebellion against his parents, he joined the French army, two years before the start of the first World War and its mandatory French conscription. This was a time in France when, following the Moroccan crisis of 1911, nationalism reached "fever pitch" – a period one historian described as "The Hegemony of Patriotism" (1911–1914), particularly affecting opinion in the lycées and grandes écoles of Paris.[4] Becoming a doctorIn 1912 Céline began a three-year enlistment in the 12th Cuirassier Regiment stationed in Rambouillet.[2] At first, he was unhappy with the military, and even considered deserting. However, he adapted, and eventually attained the rank of Sergeant.[3] The beginning of the First World War brought action to Céline's unit. On 25 October 1914, Céline volunteered to deliver a message, when others were reluctant to do so because of heavy German fire. Near Ypres, during his attempt to deliver the message, he was wounded in his right arm. (He was not wounded in the head, contrary to a popular rumor that he perpetuated.)[3] For his bravery, Céline was awarded the médaille militaire in November, and appeared one year later in the weekly l'Illustré National of November 1915, p16.[2] In March 1915 he was sent to London to work in the French passport office. While in London, he was married to Suzanne Nebout and divorced one year later.[2] In September, his arm wounds were such that he was officially declared physically unfit for military duty and was discharged. He returned to France, where he began working at a variety of jobs. In 1916 Céline set out for Africa as a representative of the Sangha-Oubangui company. He was sent to the Cameroons and returned to France in 1917.[2] Little is known of this trip except that it was unsuccessful.[3] After returning to France he worked for the Rockefeller Foundation. As part of a team, it was his job to travel to Brittany teaching people how to fight tuberculosis and how to improve hygiene.[3] In June 1919 Céline went to Bordeaux and completed the second part of his baccalauréat. Through his work with the Institute, Céline had come into contact, and good standing, with Monsieur Follet, the director of the medical school in Rennes. On 11 August 1919 Céline married Follet's daughter Édith Follet, with whom he had been acquainted for some time.[3] With Monsieur Follet's influence, Céline was accepted into the university. On 15 June 1920 his wife gave birth to a daughter, Colette Destouches. During this time, he studied intensely, obtaining certificates in physics, chemistry, and natural sciences. By 1923, three years after he had started the medical program at Rennes, Céline had completed almost everything he needed to complete his medical degree. His doctoral thesis, The Life and Work of Ignaz Semmelweis, is considered his first literary work, completed in 1924. Ignaz Semmelweis's contribution "was immense and it stood, according to Céline, in direct proportion to the misery of his life."[3] In 1924 Céline began work as an intern at a Paris maternity hospital. Becoming a writerIn 1925 Céline left his family, never to return. Working for the newly founded League of Nations, he travelled to Switzerland, England, the Cameroons, Canada, the United States, and Cuba. During this period, he began to write the play L'Eglise (1933; The Church). In 1926 he visited America, and was sent to Detroit to study the conditions of the workers at the Ford Automotive company. Seeing the effects of the "assembly line" disgusted him. His article described the plant as a sensory attack on the worker, and how this attack had literally made the worker part of the machine. In 1928, Céline returned to medicine to establish a private practice in Montmartre, in the north end of Paris, specializing in obstetrics.[5] He ended his private practice in 1931 to work in a public dispensary. == Louis Céline, originally named Louis Ferdinand Destouches, b. May 27, 1894, d. July 1, 1961, was a French writer and doctor whose novels Journey to the End of the Night (1932; Eng. trans., 1943) and Death on the Installment Plan (1936; Eng. trans., 1938) are innovative, chaotic, and antiheroic visions of human suffering. Pessimism pervades Céline's fiction as his characters sense failure, anxiety, nihilism, and inertia. Céline was unable to communicate with others, and during his life sank more deeply into a hate-filled world of madness and rage. A progressive disintegration of personality is visible in the stylistic incoherence of Guignol's Band (1944; Eng. trans., 1954), Castle to Castle (1957; Eng. trans., 1968), and North (1960; Eng. trans., 1972). His novels are verbal frescoes peopled with horrendous giants, paraplegics, and gnomes, and are filled with scenes of dismemberment and murder. Accused of collaboration, Céline fled (1944) France to live in Germany at Sigmaringen and then moved (1945) to Denmark. Condemned by default (1950) in France to one year of imprisonment and declared a national disgrace, Céline returned to France after his pardon in 1951. ==French writer and physician, nihilist and anti-Semitist, a controversial figure, who became famous with his first novel Voyage au bout de la nuit (1932, Journey to the End of the Night). Céline was wounded severely in World War I and respected as a national hero. After World War II he was accused of collaborating with the Nazis and only his literary fame saved him from imprisonment. "In this world we spent our time killing or adoring, or both together. 'I hate you! I adore you!' We keep going, we fuel and refuel, we pass on our life to a biped of the next century, with frenzy, or any cost, as if it were the greatest of pleasures to perpetuate ourselves, as if, when all's said and done, it would make us immortal. One way or another, kissing is as indispensable as scratching." (from Journey to the End of Night) Louis-Ferdinand Destouches (Louis-Ferdinand Céline) was born in Courbevoie in the Seine Department. His father was employed by an insurance company and mother dealt in quality lace. Céline grew in Paris, where his mother set up a shop in the Passage Choiseul. Céline's parents planned him a career in business and sent him abroad to learn languages. - He studied at a school at Diepholz in Lower Saxony, then at an English boarding school, and worked in various commercial companies. - In 1912, at the age of 18, he enlisted in a cavalry unit, the Twelfth Regiment of the Cuirassiers. - He was seriously wounded during World War I in Ypres, which left him with a damaged arm, a buzzing and ringing in his head, and headaches that lasted all his life. - In the autobiographical novel North (1960) he wrote about his ear noises: "I listen to them become trombones, full orchestras, marshaling yards..." He was awarded the Médaille militaire and a seventy-five percent disability pension. Céline was then assigned to the French passport office in London. In 1915 he married Suzanne Nebout, a Frenchwoman working as a barmaid, but this union was not registered with the French consulate. They divorced a years later, - when he wen to the Cameroons, where he worked for a lumber company. Upon contracting malaria and dysentery, Céline was sent back to France. In 1919 he married Edith Follet, whose father was a director of a medical school. After studying medicine at the University of Rennes, Céline received his degree from the University of Paris in 1924. His doctoral thesis was entitled La Vie et l'Œuvre de Philippe Ignace Semmelweis. This biographical study was about Hungarian physician who discovered how to prevent childbed fever and what was most important, Semmelweis introduced antiseptic procedures into medicine. In 1925 Céline left his practice, his wife, and his daughter to work as a doctor for the League of Nations. He traveled for three years in Switzerland, the Cameroons, the United States, Cuba, and Canada. While in Detroit he studied problems of social medicine at the Ford factories. In 1928 he opened a private practice in a suburb of Paris and in 1931 he was employed by a municipal clinic at Clichy, in Paris. Céline had an affair with Cillie Pam, a gymnastics instructor; she was a Jew, married and lived in Vienna. They met irregularly over the years. Eventually Pam broke up with Céline, who wrote in 1939 in a letter, that "[b]ecause of my anti-Semitic stance I've lost all my jobs (Clichy, etc.) and I'm going to court on March 8. You see, Jews can persecute too." "Those who talk about the future are scoundrels. It is the present that matters. To evoke one's posterity is to make a speech to maggots." (from Journey to the End of the Night, 1932) |
لويس فردينان أُغوست ديتوش - كان الولد الوحيد لوالديه ولد عام 1894.(Louis Ferdinand Auguste Destouches) كاتب روائي وطبيب فرنسي، ولد سنة 1894م في ضاحية باريس (كوربفوا)، توفي سنة 1961م في مودن (الضاحية الجنوبية لباريس)، عرف لاحقاُ باسمه الأدبي لوییس فردینان سيلین (Louis-Ferdinand Céline) أو اختصاراً سيلین (من اسم جدته). يعتبر سلين من أشهر وأكثر كتاب فرنسا ترجمتاً في القرن العشرين. فكره العدمي يتميز بنبرنة من السخرية وأخرى من الملحمية في آن واحد. دخل سيلين الشهرة الأدبية من بابها الواسع بعد نشره رواته الأولى سفر إلى آخر الليل سنة 1932م، حيث ينتقد الكاتب بنمطه الأدبي الفريد رعب الحرب، قسوة الرأس المالية وإلى حدٍ ما الاستعمار، من خلال الشخصية الرئيسية للرواية فرديناند باردامو (المستوحاة من التجارب الشخصية لسيلين). نشره لمقالاتٍ معاديةٍ للسامية في الثلاثينيات وتعاونه الفكري مع المحتل الألماني وحكومة فيشي أثناء الحرب العالمية الثانية ضد "الخطر اليهودي على فرنسا" جلب له متاعب جمة (قضائية، مالية وإدارية) بعد الحرب. في الخمسينيات عاش سيلين وحيداً مع زوجته في ضاحية باريس، في عزلة عن الدوائر الأدبية الباريسية حتى مات في العام 1961م. ذالك لم يمنعه من نشر ثلاث قصصٍ (من قصرٍ لآخر 1957م، شمال 1960م وريغودون التي نشرت بعد وفاته سنة 1969م) حيث يروي من خلالها حيثيات فراره مع فلول حكومة فيشي في نهاية الحرب عبر ألمانيا ثم إلى الدنمارك. يعتبر سيلين في الأدب الفرنسي من أكبر الروائي القرن العشرين، إلى جانب كتاب "سخافة الإنسانية" كألبير كامو، جان بول سارتر أو صمويل بيكيت. ابتدع سلين أسلوباً لغوياً خاصاً، متقنٌ للغاية، رغم اعتماده على لغة الشارع الباريسي == - كانت العائلة فقيرة وعمل وهو في سن الحادية عشر في عدة اعمال. - في سن 14 ارسله والديه الى المانيا وانجلترا لتيعمل لغة حيث عاش لمدة نستنين وعاش في مدارس داخليه. - عمل منذ عن غادر المدرسة وحتى سن 18 في عدة وظائف والتي كان يفقدها بعد مدة قصيرة. - عام 1912 أي وهو في سن الثامنة عشره انضم الى الجيش الفرنسي كاجراء ثوري ضد والديه. - اصيب في المعركة وفقد يده اليمنى، وطنين في اذنه ووجع في الرأس استمرت طوال حياته. - تزوج وعمره 21 سنه وطلق بعد عام واحد. - وعمره 22 سنه ارسل الى الكاميرون كممثل لشركة وهناك اصيب بالملاريا والدينزنتاريا واعيد الى فرنسا.. مأزوم ويتيم اجتماعي بسبب العلاقة الغربية مع والديه. يتيم اجتماعي. |
by William Shakespeare, England, (1564-1616) == الملك لير تراجيديا لـ شكسبير كتبت المسرحية ما بين سنة 1603 م وسنة 1606 م قدمت على المسرح لأول مرة سنة 1606 م استمد شكسبير الحبكة من كتاب هولنشد عن تاريخ إنجلترا، إقتبس الحبكة الثانوية من ما رواه سبنسر في ملحمته الشعرية "ملكة الجان" وضعها النقاد على قمة ما كتب شكسبير باعتبارها تنتمي إلى العصر الحديث أو تحمل بذور الحداثة ترجمت المسرحية لأكثر من لغة، وترجمها للغة العربية : د.محمد عناني، د. فاطمة موسى، جبرا إبراهيم جبرا. يقول النقاد أن مسرحية الملك لير تقرأ ولا تمثل، كناية عن صعوبة تحويلها إلى عمل مسرحي. حبكة المسرحيةإلا إن المخرج المصري أحمد عبد الحليم حولها إلى عمل مسرحي ناجح وشعبي في مصر حيث قدمها على المسرح القومي، مستعيناً بنجومية الممثل يحيى الفخراني وموسيقى راجح داوود وأشعار أحمد فؤاد نجم ومجموعة من الممثلات والممثلين مثل : أحمد سلامة وصفاء الطوخي وعهدي صادق وأشرف عبد الغفور وسلوى محمد علي ومجدي إدريس وإبراهيم الشرقاوي. وكما يقول مخرج المسرحية فإنها عرضت في مسرح القلعة المفتوح بالقاهرة على جمهور عادي جداً وتخوف الممثلون من عدم تقدير الجمهور للعرض أو عدم فهمه أو عدم التزام الجمهور بتقاليد المسرح، إلا إنهم فوجئوا بهدوء الجمهور فور بدء العرض وتقبلهم له ببساطه. شخصيات المسرحية: 1-لير ملك بريطانيا 2جنريل 3-ريجان بنات الملك لير 4-كردليا بنت الملك الصغرى 5-البهلول نديم الملك لير 6-كنت وزير الملك لير 7-جلستر أحد الامراء 8-ادجار 9-أدمند أبناء الأمير جلستر خدم و جنود و مواطنون تحكى عن لير ملك بريطانيا الأسطوري عاش شبابه فارس من أقوى الفرسان وعندما تقدم به السن قرر تقسيم ملكه بين بناته الثلاث (جنريل)و(ريجان)و(كردليا)ثم طلب من بناته الثلاث ان يعبرن عن حبهن له فقالت لة جنريل انااحبك متل زبدة البحر وقالت لة ريجان انا احبك كعدد البشر ولكن لم تتملق ابته الثالثة في مدحه كما فعلت الاخوات الكبريات فقلت لة انا احبك مثل الشخاص الذين يحبون والديهم وبعده غضب عليها لير ظنا منه انها لا تحبه لذلك طردها من مملكته بلا شي ولكن تزوجها ملك فرنسا بقوله انها لا تطمع بشي من المال لذلك هو من سوف يتزوجها. وعندما كبرت الفتاتان جنريل وريجان.. قامتا بطرد أبوهما من المملكة لذا قررت كردليا أن تساعد أبوها فأرسلت جيش قوى إلى إنجلترا وقامت حرب بين إنجلترا وفرنسا من أجل تحرير الملك لير.. بعد ذلك انهزم جيش فرنسا وانتصر جيش إنجلترا فقامت جونريل وأختها ريجان بإلقاء القبض على كردليا والملك وأسرهما في السجن.. وعندئذ عرف الملك لير كم تحبه ابنته كردليا.. وأن ما قامت به الأختان الأخرتان ماهو إلا تملق من أجل الحصول على العرش.. فندم ندما شديدا. == == الملك لير .. كان الملك لير ملكا على بريطانيا .. وكانت له ثلاث بنات .. البنت الكبرى .. جونريل متزوجة من دوق البانى .. و البنت الوسطي ريجان متزوجة من دوق كورنول .. أما البنت الصغرى كورديليا فقد كانت غير متزوجة .. وتقدم الى خطبتها كل من ملك فرنسا و دوق برجاندى اللذين كانا موجودين بقصر الملك لير عندما بدأت أحداث تلك المسرحية . كان الملك لير وقتئذ عجوزا تجاوز الأعوام الثمانين .. وشعر بان الوقت قد حان ليتخفف من أعباء حكم مملكته لذلك قرر أن يقسم المملكة بين بناته الثلاث على ان يتحدد نصيب كل منهن بحسب ما تقوله من كلمات تعبر عن حبها لأبيها .. وهكذا استدعى الملك لير بناته الثلاث وطلب من كل واحدة منهن ان تعبر عن مدى حبها له .. ولان البنت الكبرى جونريل كانت على قدر كبير من المكر و الدهاء . و القدرة على تنميق الكلمات فقد قالت أنها تحب أباها بما تعجز الكلمات عن وصفه وان أباها اعز من عينيها وحريتها وحياتها كلها وأعجب الملك لير بكلام ابنته الكبرى فوهبها هي وزوجها دوق البانى ثلث مملكته وكانت البنت الوسطي ريجان لا تقل عن أختها مكرا و دهاءا .وقدرة على تزويق الكلام فقالت ان كل متع الدنيا لا تقارن بالسعادة التى تحسها بسبب حبها لأبيها .. وأعجب الملك لير بكلام ابنته الوسطي فوهبها وزوجها الدوق كورنول الثلث الثاني من مملكته وكانت البنت الصغرى كورديليا تدرك مدى الزيف فى كلمات كل من اختيها وتعرف ان كل واحدة منهما قالت كلماتها المنمقة والمزوقة رغبة فى الحصول على اكبر جزء من اموال أبيها .. ولذلك فقد أثرت هي ان يكون حبها لأبيها صامتا وصادقا فى نفس الوقت وقالت أنها تحب أباها طبقا للأصول الواجبة باعتبارها ابنته .. بهت الملك لير عندما سمع تلك الكلمات الجافة من ابنته الصغرى .. كورديليا فقد توقع ان تكون كلمات هذه الابنة الأثيرة لديه أكثر رقة وأجمل تعبيرا من الكلمات التى قالتها كل من اختيها وعندما طلب منها الملك ان تهذب حديثها وتختار كلمات أخرى رقيقة وجميلة قالت كورديليا أنها تحب والدها الذي أنجبها وأحسن تربيتها وعلمها الطاعة و الصدق ولذلك فهي لا تستطيع ان تقول مثل اختيها بأنها لا تحب احد غيره فى هذا العالم لان معنى ذلك أنها ستقصر حبها على أبيها وحده ولن تحب أحدا سواه ولو كان زوجها وأبناءها ولان الملك لير كان عجوزا هرما فقد افقده السن قدرته على التمييز السليم بين الكلام الصادق الذى يخرج من القلب والكلام الزائف الذى قد ينطق به اللسان لذلك فقد اعتقد ان ابنته كورديليا تتكبر عليه فضب غضبا شديدا وقرر ان يحرمها من الحصول على اى جزء من مملكته بل وأعطى الثلث الباقى من المملكة مناصفة بين الاختين جونريل وزجها دوق البانى وريجان وزوجها دوق كورنول وجمع الملك كل رجال الدولة الذين كانوا موجودين بالقصر وتنازل أمامهم عن تاجه لابنتيه الكبرى و الوسطي كما تنازل لهما عن جميع سلطاته فى الحكم على ان يحتفظ لنفسه فقط بلقب الملك وبحقه فى ان يقيم طوال حياته لمدة شهر بالتناوب فى قصر كل من ابنتيه ومعه مائة من فرسانه أصيب النبلاء ورجال القصر بدهشة شديدة من تصرف الملك على هذا النحو الخاطىء وغير العاقل وحزنوا كثيرا لمصير الابنة الصغرى كورديليا التى كانت اكثر صدقا من اختيها ومع ذلك فقد كان عليها ان تواجه هذا المصير التعس.. ولكن أحدا من هؤلاء النبلاء لم يستطع ان يعترض على تصرف الملك فلزموا الصمت ولم ينطقوا بكلمة فيما عدا النبيل ايرل كنت الذى كان اكثر النبلاء أخلاصا للملك فقد تجرأ ونطق ببعض كلمات طيبة فى صالح كورديليا فغضب الملك وطلب من ان يسكت والا أمر بإعدامه لم يهتم ايرل كنت بتهديد الملك فواصل كلامه الطيب فى نصح الملك الذى استشاط غضبا وأمر بطرد ايرل كنت من القصر وبنفيه من البلاد كلها وأعطاه خمسة أيام ليرحل وإذا بقى فى المملكة حتى اليوم السادس فسوف ينفذ فيه حكم الإعدام أما كورديليا فأصبحت الآن لا تملك سوى نفسها فتراجع دوق برجاندى عن طلب يدها للزواج ولكن ملك فرنسا لمس من تصرف هذه الابنة الطيبة مع أبيها أنها مخلصة وصادقة ومن معدن نفيس طيب لذلك فقد أصر على طلب يدها لتصبح زوجته وتصبح بالتالي ملكة على فرنسا وودعت كورديليا أباها وأختيها وطلبت منهما ان تكونا رحيمتين بابيهما وان تعاملاه معاملة حسنة وهكذا رحلت كورديليا الى فرنسا وقلبها مفعم بالحزن على أبيها وعلى المصير الذى تتوقعه من جانب اختيها المخادعتين وبدا الملك لير إقامته لمدة شهر فى قصر ابنته الكبرى جونريل على ان يقيم فى الشهر التالي فى قصر ابنته الوسطي ريجان ثم يعود للإقامة فى قصر جونريل لمدة شهر وهكذا ولكن وقبل ان ينقضي الشهر الاول الذى قضاه الملك لير فى قصر ابنته الكبرى بدأ يكتشف الفرق الهائل بين الواقع المرير و الوعود الزائفة التى قطعتها الابنة على نفسها حين أعلنت قبول إقامة الملك فى قصرها ومعه فرسانه المائة لقد ضاقت الابنة الجحودة بابيها وفرسانه بل طلبت من خدم القصر بان يتغافلوا عن تلبية طلباته وان يتظاهروا بعدم سماعه وكان النبيل ايرل كنت قد قرر البقاء فى بريطانيا متخفيا ليظل فى خدمة مليكه فخلع ملابسه الفاخرة وارتدى ملابس الخدم وانتحل لنفسه اسما جديدا هو كايوس والتحق بخدمة الملك لير ليكون بقربه بصفة دائمة ولا حظ كايوس ان احد الخدم بإيعاز من جونريل نفسها قد عامل الملك بطريقة خالية من الاحترام الواجب فقام كايوس على الفور بضرب هذا الخادم غير المؤدب وطرحه أرضا وهكذا حاز الخادم كايوس وهو فى الوقت نفسه ايرل كنت المتخفي ثقة الملك لير وحبه وعلى عادة ملوك هذا الزمان كان الملك يحتفظ بمهرج ليضحكه وكثيرا ما كان هذا المهرج يقول كلمات مرحة يسخر فيها من حماقة الملك حين قسم مملكته الى قسمين اعطاهما لابنتين جاحدتين وأخيرا جاءت اللحظة التى فهم فيها الملك لير أسباب ودوافع المعاملة السيئة التى كانت تعامله بها ابنته .. فقد أعلنت جونريل بكل وضوح وبكل تذمر أنها لا تطيق أباها الذى أصبح مخرفا ولا تطيق فرسانه المائة الذين يملؤن القصر بالضجيج ولا يفعلون شيئا سوى أكل الطعام كما قالت أنها لا تستطيع تحمل تكاليف كل هؤلاء الفرسان وانه من الأفضل للملك ان يطردهم جميعا وان يحتفظ فقط ببعض كبار السن منهم صدم الملك لير بعدما سمع هذا الكلام البغيض وأحس بمدى عقوق ابنته جونريل فاخذ يلعنها ويدعو الله ان يحرمها من إنجاب الأطفال او ان تنجب ابنة تذيقها كاس الهوان لتحس بالعذاب الذى يحسه الآباء من عقوق الأبناء لان الابن العاق يسبب الما لوالديه أقسى من لدغة الثعبان وقرر الملك لير ان يغادر قصر ابنته جونريل ومعه فرسانه ليذهب ويقيم مع ابنته الوسطي ريجان وأرسل خادمه كايوس برسالة الى ابنته يطلب منها فيها ان تستعد لاستقباله ولكن الابنة جونريل أرسلت رسالة اخرى الى اختها تطلب منها الا تستقبل اباها ومعه كل هؤلاء الفرسان و الأتباع و كان الخادم الذى يحمل هذه الرسالة هو نفسه الخادم الذى ضربه كايوس وطرحه أرضا لذلك فقد ارتاب كايوس فى امر هذا الرسول و امر الرسالة التى يحملها وذلك حين قابله مصادفة بالقرب من قصر ريجان فوجه اليه كلاما عنيفا اهانه فيه وطلب منه ان يبارزه ولكن الخادم رفض المبارزة فاضطر كايوس الى ان يوسعه ضربا وصل امر هذا الشجار الذى حدث بين رسول جونريل ورسول الملك الى أسماع ريجان وزوجها دوق كورنول فأمرا على الفور بالقبض على كايوس رسول الملك وشده الى آلة التعذيب الرهيبة وحين وصل الملك لير وفرسانه الى قصر ريجان وشاهد خادمه كايوس مشدودا الى الة التعذيب امتلاء قلبه بالحزن و الخوف وعندما طلب مقابلة ابنته وزوجها اخبره الخدم بانهما متعبان ولن يستطيعا مقابلته فغضب الملك غضبا شديدا واخذ يصيح صيحات يائسة تعبر عن كل ما كان يشعره من هوان ومرارة واخيرا جاءت ابنته ريجان لتحيته ولكنها كانت تتابط ذراع اختها جونريل التى كانت قد وصلت لتحريض ريجان ضد ابيها وضد احتفاظه بالفرسان المائة ولذلك فقد تحطم قلب الملك لير وطار صوابه حين رأى ابنتيه العاقتين تتباريان فى القسوة عليه وهاج وماج ورفع ذراعيه الهزيلتين مهددا ولاعنا وفجأة أظلمت السماء وهبت الرياح وبرق البرق ودوى صوت الرعد فى الافاق وعندئذ كان الملك لير فقد صوابه وأعلن انه يريد الخروج ليواجه أخطار الطبيعة الغاضبة باعتبار ان ذلك أفضل عنده من البقاء تحت سقف واحد مع ابنتيه واندفع خارجا واغلقت الابنتان باب القصر من ورائه كانت العاصفة تزداد سوءا كلما توغل الملك لير فى الطريق واشتد هطول المطر واشتدت حدة هبوب الرياح وامتدت الأرض الفضاء أمامه كما لو كانت بلا نهاية واخذ الملك يصرخ فى غضب مجنون بأعلى صوته خلال ومضات البرق وأصوات الرعد ويطلب من الرياح ان تشتد اكثر وأكثر لتلقى بالأرض ومن عليها الى داخل البحر أو لتجعل أمواج البحر تعلو وتعلو حتى تغرق الأرض وتطيح بمن عليها من بشر غارقين فى أطماعهم وناكرين للجميل لم يكن الملك لير وحده فى تلك العاصفة كان معه المهرج الذى اخذ يسخر من الطبيعة ومن الملك نفسه ويطلب منه ان يعود الى ابنتيه ذليلا ليطلب منهما الصفح وكان النبيل ايرل كنت المتنكر فى هيئة الخادم كايوس قد خرج هو ايضا فى العاصفة ليبحث عن سيده الملك العجوز لينقذه من تلك العاصفة المدمرة وعندما عثر عليه كان الملك فى ذروة صراخه و جنونه وعبثا حاول كايوس ان يقنع الملك بالدخول الى كوخ فقير ليحتمي فيه من غضب الطبيعة الى ان قبل الملك فى النهاية وبداخل الكوخ شاهد الملك شحاذا فقيرا كان قد لجأ الى الكوخ ليحتمي فيه وكان الشحاذ يلبس هلاهيل ممزقة لا تكاد تستر جسمه فقال الملك لابد ان هذا الرجل قد وهب كل شيء الى بناته لان اى رجل لا يمكن ان يصل الى هذا المصير البائس الا اذا كان والدا لبنات جاحدات بعد ان هدأت العاصفة اصطحب النبيل المخلص ايرل كنت الملك لير الى قلعة دوفر وطلب من بعض الفرسان الذين مازالوا مخلصين للملك ويحتفظون بولائهم له ان يقوموا برعاية الملك بدلا منه لأنه سيقوم برحلة قصيرة وأبحر ايرل كنت الى فرنسا حيث قابل الملكة كورديليا الابنة الصغرى للملك لير و التى تزوجها ملك فرنسا واخبرها بالمصير المؤلم والمؤسف الذى انتهى اليه والدها بسبب الجحود و المعاملة وعدم الاحترام و الإذلال الذى لاقاه الملك من اختيها وطلبت الملكة كورديليا من زوجها ملك فرنسا ان يزودها بجيش كبير تذهب به الى بريطانيا لإسقاط حكم هاتين الاختين الجاحدتين فوافق الملك على إعداد وتجهيز الجيش المطلوب وأبحر الجيش ونزل الى شواطىء دوفر فى ذلك الوقت كان الملك لير قد تمكن من الهرب من رقابة فرسان قلعة دوفر وانطلق يغدو فى الحقول المجاورة وهو فى حالة جنون مؤسفة كان يغنى بأعلى صوته اغانى لا معنى لها ويضع على رأسه تاجا من القش وانطلق بعض جنود جيش كورديليا ليبحثوا عن الملك الى ان عثروا عليه وهو فى تلك الحالة المؤسية البائسة وكانت كورديليا مشتاقة الى رؤية والدها ولكن الأطباء منعوها من ذلك بسبب سوء حالته فوعدتهم بان تعطيهم كل ما تملكه من ذهب و مجوهرات اذا عالجوا اباها وأعادوه الى حالته الطبيعية وبعد ان هدأت حالة الملك قليلا ذهبت كورديليا لمقابلته وتم لقاء حافل بالمشاعر بين الملك وابنته الوفية التى أخبرته بأنها جاءت لتعيد اليه حقوقه .. فى تلك الأثناء كان الخلاف قد دب بين الاختين الجاحدتين جونريل وريجان ولان هاتين الاختين كانتا غير مخلصتين لابيهما فقد كانتا ايضا غير مخلصتين لزوجيهما ومن الغريب أنهما وقعتا فى حب دنيء لرجل واحد هو ادموند الابن الغير شرعي لايرل جلوسستر وكان هذا الابن قد استطاع ان يغتصب حكم جلوسستر من أخيه ادجار الوريث الشرعي لحكم المقاطعة وتلاحقت الأحداث بسرعة مات دوق كورنول زوج الابنة ريجان التى أعلنت على الفور عزمها على الزواج من ادموند الذى كان على علاقة سابقة معها ومع اختها جونريل فى نفس الوقت ولذلك فقد حقدت جونريل على اختها وأعمتها الغيرة فدست لها السم وقتلتها وعندما علم دوق البانى زوج جونريل بالجريمة التى ارتكبتها زوجته الشريرة امر بالقبض عليها وإعدامها وهكذا انتهت شرور هاتين الاختين الجاحدتين أما الابنة الوفية كورديليا فقد انهزم جيشها فى حربه مع جيش ادموند الذى اسر كورديليا وأعدمها ومات الملك لير حزنا على ابنته الوفية ومات بعده ايرل كنت الذى كان متنكرا فى هيئة الخادم كايوس حزنا على وفاة سيده وقتل ادموند فى مبارزة قامت بينه وبين ادجار الوريث الشرعي الذى استعاد حكم المقاطعة من الأخ المغتصب لها وأصبح دوق البانى زوج جونريل ملكا على انجلترا وهكذا انتهت حكاية الملك لير وبناته الثلاث |
King Lear Synopsisis a tragedy by William Shakespeare. The title character descends into madness after foolishly disposing of his estate between two of his three daughters based on their flattery, bringing tragic consequences for all. The play is based on the legend of Leir of Britain, a mythological pre-Roman Celtic king. It has been widely adapted for the stage and motion pictures, and the role of Lear has been coveted and played by many of the world's most accomplished actors. The play was written between 1603 and 1606 and later revised. Shakespeare's earlier version, The True Chronicle of the History of the Life and Death of King Lear and His Three Daughters, was published in quarto in 1608. The Tragedy of King Lear, a more theatrical version, was included in the 1623 First Folio. Modern editors usually conflate the two, though some insist that each version has its individual integrity that should be preserved.[1] After the Restoration, the play was often revised with a happy ending for audiences who disliked its dark and depressing tone, but since the 19th century Shakespeare's original version has been regarded as one of his supreme achievements. The tragedy is particularly noted for its probing observations on the nature of human suffering and kinship. George Bernard Shaw wrote, "No man will ever write a better tragedy than Lear".[2] King Lear, who is elderly and wants to retire from power, decides to divide his realm among his three daughters, and offers the largest share to the one who loves him best. Goneril and Regan both proclaim in fulsome terms that they love him more than anything in the world, which pleases him. For Cordelia, there is nothing to compare her love to, nor words to properly express it; she speaks honestly but bluntly, which infuriates him. In his anger he disinherits her, and divides the kingdom between Regan and Goneril. Kent objects to this unfair treatment. Lear is further enraged by Kent's protests, and banishes him from the country. Lear summons the Duke of Burgundy and the King of France, who have both proposed marriage to Cordelia. Learning that Cordelia has been disinherited, the Duke of Burgundy withdraws his suit, but the King of France is impressed by her honesty and marries her anyway. Lear announces he will live alternately with Goneril and Regan, and their husbands, the Dukes of Albany and Cornwall respectively. He reserves to himself a retinue of one hundred knights, to be supported by his daughters. Goneril and Regan speak privately, revealing that their declarations of love were fake, and they view Lear as an old and foolish man. Edmund resents his illegitimate status, and plots to dispose of his legitimate older brother Edgar. He tricks their father Gloucester with a forged letter, making him think Edgar plans to usurp the estate. Kent returns from exile in disguise under the name of Caius, and Lear hires him as a servant. Lear discovers that now that Goneril has power, she no longer respects him. She orders him to behave better and reduces his retinue. Enraged, Lear departs for Regan's home. The Fool mocks Lear's misfortune. Edmund fakes an attack by Edgar, and Gloucester is completely taken in. He disinherits Edgar and proclaims him an outlaw. Bearing Lear's message to Regan, Kent-as-Caius meets Oswald at Gloucester's home, quarrels with him, and is put in the stocks by Regan and her husband Cornwall. When Lear arrives, he objects to the mistreatment of his messenger, but Regan is as dismissive of her father as Goneril was. Lear is enraged but impotent. Goneril arrives and supports Regan's argument against him. Lear yields completely to his rage. He rushes out into a storm to rant against his ungrateful daughters, accompanied by the mocking Fool. Kent later follows to protect him. Gloucester protests against Lear's mistreatment. Wandering on the heath after the storm, Lear meets Edgar, in the guise of a madman named Tom o' Bedlam. Edgar babbles madly while Lear denounces his daughters. Kent leads them all to shelter. Edmund betrays Gloucester to Cornwall, Regan, and Goneril. He shows a letter from his father to the King of France asking for help against them; and in fact a French army has landed in Britain. Once Edmund leaves with Goneril to warn Albany about the invasion, Gloucester is arrested, and Cornwall gouges out Gloucester's eyes. As he is doing so, a servant is overcome with rage by what he is witnessing and attacks Cornwall, mortally wounding him. Regan kills the servant, and tells Gloucester that Edmund betrayed him; then she turns him out to wander the heath too. Edgar, in his madman's guise, meets his blinded father on the heath. Gloucester, not recognising him, begs Tom to lead him to a cliff at Dover so that he may jump to his death. Goneril discovers that she finds Edmund more attractive than her honest husband Albany, whom she regards as cowardly. Albany has developed a conscience - he is disgusted by the sisters' treatment of Lear, and the mutilation of Gloucester, and denounces his wife. Goneril sends Edmund back to Regan; receiving news of Cornwall's death, she fears her newly widowed sister may steal Edmund and sends him a letter through Oswald. Kent leads Lear to the French army, which is commanded by Cordelia. But Lear is half-mad and terribly embarrassed by his earlier follies. At Regan's instigation, Albany joins his forces with hers against the French. Goneril's suspicions about Regan's motives are confirmed and returned, as Regan rightly guesses the meaning of her letter and declares to Oswald that she is a more appropriate match for Edmund. Edgar pretends to lead Gloucester to a cliff, then changes his voice and tells Gloucester he has miraculously survived a great fall. Lear appears, by now completely mad. He rants that the whole world is corrupt and runs off. Oswald appears, still looking for Edmund. On Regan's orders, he tries to kill Gloucester but is killed by Edgar. In Oswald's pocket, Edgar finds Goneril's letter, in which she encourages Edmund to kill her husband and take her as his wife. Kent and Cordelia take charge of Lear, whose madness slowly passes. Regan, Goneril, Albany, and Edmund meet with their forces. Albany insists that they fight the French invaders but not harm Lear or Cordelia. The two sisters lust for Edmund, who has made promises to both. He considers the dilemma and plots the deaths of Albany, Lear, and Cordelia. Edgar gives Goneril's letter to Albany. The armies meet in battle, the British defeat the French, and Lear and Cordelia are captured. Edmund sends them off with secret orders for execution. The victorious British leaders meet, and the recently widowed Regan now declares she will marry Edmund. But Albany exposes the intrigues of Edmund and Goneril and proclaims Edmund a traitor. Regan falls ill, and is escorted offstage, where she dies. It is stated that Goneril slipped poison into her food. Edmund defies Albany, who calls for a trial by combat. Edgar appears in his own clothes, and challenges Edmund to a duel. Edgar wounds Edmund fatally, though he does not die immediately. Albany confronts Goneril with the letter which was intended to be his death warrant; she flees in shame and rage. Edgar reveals himself, and reports that Gloucester died offstage from the shock and joy of learning that Edgar is alive, after Edgar revealed himself to his father. Offstage, Goneril, with all her evil plans thwarted, commits suicide. The dying Edmund decides, though he admits it is against his own character, to try and save Lear and Cordelia; however, his confession comes too late. Soon after Albany sends men to countermand Edmund's orders, Lear enters bearing Cordelia's corpse in his arms, having survived by killing the executioner. Lear now recognizes Kent, but fails to make the connection between Kent and his alter-ego, Caius. Albany urges Lear to resume his throne, but like Gloucester, the trials Lear has been through have finally overwhelmed him, and he dies. Albany then asks Kent and Edgar to take charge of the throne. Kent declines, explaining that his master is calling him on a journey. It is unclear whether Kent intends to commit suicide, following Lear into death, or feels he is going to die in the same manner as Lear and Gloucester. Finally, either Albany (in the Quarto version) or Edgar (in the Folio version) has the final speech, with the implication that he will now become king[5][6] |
William Shakespeare is one of the most widely read authors and possibly the best dramatist ever to live. The actual date of his birth is not known, but traditionally April 23rd 1564 (St George's Day) has been his accepted birthday, as this was three days before his baptism. He died on the same date in 1616, aged fifty-two.The life of William Shakespeare can be divided into three acts. The first twenty years of his life were spent in Stratford-upon-Avon where he grew up, went to school, got married and became a father. The next twenty-five years he spent as an actor and playwright in London; and he spent his last few years back in Stratford-upon-Avon, where he enjoyed his retirement in moderate wealth gained from his successful years in the theatre.William was the eldest son of tradesman John Shakespeare and Mary Arden, and the third of eight children. His father was later elected mayor of Stratford, which was the highest post a man in civic politics could attain. In sixteenth-century England, William was lucky to survive into adulthood; syphilis, scurvy, smallpox, tuberculosis, typhus and dysentery shortened life expectancy at the time to approximately thirty-five years. The Bubonic Plague took the lives of many and was believed to have been the cause of death for three of William's seven siblings. Little is known of William's childhood, other than it is thought that he attended the local grammar school, where he studied Latin and English Literature. In 1582, at the age of eighteen, William married a local farmer's daughter, Anne Hathaway, who was eight years his senior and three months pregnant. During their marriage they had three children: Susanna, born on May 26th 1583 and twins, Hamnet and Judith, born on February 2nd 1585. Hamnet, William's only son, caught Bubonic Plague and died aged just eleven. Five years into his marriage William moved to London and appeared in many small parts at The Globe Theatre, then one of the biggest theatres in England. His first appearance in public as a poet was in 1593 with "Venus and Adonis" and again in the following year with "The Rape of Lucrece". Six years later, in 1599, he became joint proprietor of The Globe Theatre.When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was succeeded by her cousin King James of Scotland. King James supported Shakespeare and his band of actors and gave them license to call themselves "The King's Men" in return for entertaining the court. In just twenty-three years, between 1590 and 1613, William Shakespeare is attributed with writing thirty-eight plays, one-hundred-and-fifty-four sonnets and five poems. No original manuscript exists for any of his plays, so it is hard to accurately date them. However, from their contents and reports of the day it is believed that his first play was A"The Taming of the ShrewA" and that his last complete work was A"Two Noble KinsmenA", written two years before he died. The cause of his death remains unknown.He was buried on April 25th 1616,two days after his death, at the Church of the Holy Trinity (the same Church where he had been baptised fifty-two years earlier). His gravestone bears these words, believed to have been written by William himself:- "Good friend for Jesus sake forbear,To dig the dust enclosed here!Blest be the man that spares these stones,And curst be he that moves my bones"At the time of his death, William had substantial properties, which he bestowed on his family and associates from the theatre. In his will he left his wife, the former Anne Hathaway, his second best bed!William Shakespeare's last direct descendant died in 1670. She was his granddaughter, Elizabeth مكرر - مجهول الطفولة. |
Leaves of Grass Overviewby Walt Whitman, United States, (1819-1892) Whitman is today regarded as America's Homer or Dante, and his work the touchstone for literary originality in the New World. In Leaves of Grass, he abandoned the rules of traditional poetry - breaking the standard metred line, discarding the obligatory rhyming scheme, and using the vernacular. Emily Dickinson condemned his sexual and physiological allusions as 'disgraceful', but Emerson saw the book as the 'most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet contributed'. A century later it is his judgment of this autobiographical vision of the vigor of the American nation that has proved the more enduring. This is the most up-to-date edition for student use, with full critical apparatus. ABOUT THE SERIES: For over 100 years Oxford World's Classics has made available the widest range of literature from around the globe. Each affordable volume reflects Oxford's commitment to scholarship, providing the most accurate text plus a wealth of other valuable features, including expert introductions by leading authorities, helpful notes to clarify the text, up-to-date bibliographies for further study, and much more == Leaves of Grass is a poetry collection by the American poet Walt Whitman (1819–1892). Though the first edition was published in 1855, Whitman spent his entire life writing Leaves of Grass,[1] revising it in several editions until his death. Among the poems in the collection are "Song of Myself", "I Sing the Body Electric", "Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking", and in later editions, Whitman's elegy to the assassinated President Abraham Lincoln, "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd".This book is notable for its discussion of delight in sensual pleasures during a time when such candid displays were considered immoral. Where much previous poetry, especially English, relied on symbolism, allegory, and meditation on the religious and spiritual, Leaves of Grass (particularly the first edition) exalted the body and the material world. Influenced by Ralph Waldo Emerson and the Transcendentalist movement, itself an offshoot of Romanticism, Whitman's poetry praises nature and the individual human's role in it. However, much like Emerson, Whitman does not diminish the role of the mind or the spirit; rather, he elevates the human form and the human mind, deeming both worthy of poetic praise. Publication history and originInitial publication Leaves of Grass has its genesis in an essay called The Poet by Ralph Waldo Emerson, published in 1844, which expressed the need for the United States to have its own new and unique poet to write about the new country's virtues and vices. Whitman, reading the essay, consciously set out to answer Emerson's call as he began work on the first edition of Leaves of Grass. Whitman, however, downplayed Emerson's influence, stating, "I was simmering, simmering, simmering; Emerson brought me to a boil".[2] On May 15, 1855, Whitman registered the title Leaves of Grass with the clerk of the United States District Court, Southern District of New Jersey, and received its copyright.[3] The first edition was published in Brooklyn at the Fulton Street printing shop of two Scottish immigrants, James and Andrew Rome, whom Whitman had known since the 1840s,[4] on July 4, 1855. Whitman paid for and did much of the typesetting for the first edition himself. The book did not include the author's name, instead offering an engraving by Samuel Hollyer depicting the poet in work clothes and a jaunty hat, arms at his side.[5] Early advertisements for the first edition appealed to "lovers of literary curiosities" as an oddity.[6] Sales on the book were few but Whitman was not discouraged. The first edition was very small, collecting only twelve unnamed poems in 95 pages.[7] Whitman once said he intended the book to be small enough to be carried in a pocket. "That would tend to induce people to take me along with them and read me in the open air: I am nearly always successful with the reader in the open air."[8] About 800 were printed,[9] though only 200 were bound in its trademark green cloth cover.[3] The only American library known to have purchased a copy of the first edition was in Philadelphia.[10] The poems of the first edition, which were given titles in later issues, were "Song of Myself," "A Song For Occupations," "To Think of Time," "The Sleepers," "I Sing the Body Electric," "Faces," "Song of the Answerer," "Europe: The 72d and 73d Years of These States," "A Boston Ballad," "There Was a Child Went Forth," "Who Learns My Lesson Complete?", and "Great Are the Myths." The title Leaves of Grass was a pun. "Grass" was a term given by publishers to works of minor value and "leaves" is another name for the pages on which they were printed.[7] Whitman sent a copy of the first edition of Leaves of Grass to Emerson, the man who had inspired its creation. In a letter to Whitman, Emerson said "I find it the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom America has yet contributed."[11] He went on, "I am very happy in reading it, as great power makes us happy." == |
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