Astrid Anna Emilia Lindgren (née Ericsson) (Swedish pronunciation: ( listen)), 14 November 1907 – 28 January 2002) was a Swedish author and screenwriter. As of December 2012, she is the world's 20th[1] most translated author and has sold roughly 145 million[2] copies worldwide. She is best known for the Pippi Longstocking, Karlsson-on-the-Roof and the Six Bullerby Children[3] book series.

Astrid Lindgren grew up in Näs, near Vimmerby, Småland and many of her books are based on her family and childhood memories and landscapes. However, Pippi Longstocking, one of her most famous books, was set in Gotland.
Lindgren was the daughter of Samuel August Ericsson and Hanna Johnsson. She had two sisters and a brother, Gunnar Ericsson, who eventually became a member of the Swedish parliament.
Upon finishing school, Lindgren took a job with the a local newspaper in Vimmerby. When she became pregnant with the chief editor's child[clarification needed] in 1926, he proposed marriage. She declined and moved to Stockholm, learning to become a typist and stenographer (she would later write most of her drafts in stenography). In due time, she gave birth to her son, Lars, in Copenhagen and left him in the care of a foster family.
Although poorly paid, she saved whatever she could and travelled as often as possible to Copenhagen to be with Lars, often just over a weekend, spending most of her time on the train back and forth. Eventually, she managed to bring Lars home, leaving him in the care of her parents until she could afford to raise him in Stockholm.
In 1931, she married her boss, Sture Lindgren (1898–1952). Three years later, in 1934, Lindgren gave birth to her second child, Karin, who became a translator. The character Pippi Longstocking was invented for her daughter to amuse her while she was ill and bed-ridden. Lindgren later related that Karin had suddenly said to her, "Tell me a story about Pippi Longstocking," and the tale was created in response to that remark.
The family moved in 1941 to an apartment on Dalagatan, with a view over Vasaparken, where Lindgren lived until her death in 2002, at the age of 94.[4]
Lindgren was almost blind a few years before her death.

Lindgren worked as a journalist and secretary before becoming a full-time author. She served as a secretary for the 1933 Swedish Summer Grand Prix.
In 1944 Lindgren won second prize in a competition held by the newly founded publishing house Rabén & Sjögren with her novel Britt-Marie lättar sitt hjärta (Britt-Marie unburdens her heart). A year later she won first prize in the same competition with the children's book Pippi Långstrump (Pippi Longstocking), which has since become one of the most beloved children's books in the world. She had already sent Pippi Longstocking to the Bonniers publishing house but it was rejected. Pippi Longstocking has been translated into 60 languages. While Lindgren almost immediately became a much appreciated writer, the irreverent attitude towards adult authority that is a distinguishing characteristic of many of her characters has occasionally drawn the ire of some conservatives.
The women's magazine Damernas Värld sent Lindgren to the USA in 1948 to write short essays. Upon arrival she is said to have been upset by the discrimination against Black Americans. A few years later she published the book Kati in America, a collection of short essays inspired by the trip.
In 1956, she won the Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis.
In 1958, Lindgren became the second recipient of the Hans Christian Andersen Award, an international award for youth literature. On her 90th birthday, she was pronounced Swede of the Year by a radio show.
In its entry on Scandinavianfantasy, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy named Lindgren the foremost Swedish contributor to modern children's fantasy.[5] Its entry on Lindgren summed up her work in glowing terms: "her niche in children's fantasy remains both secure and exalted. Her stories and images can never be forgotten."[6]

In 1976, a scandal arose in Sweden when Lindgren's marginal tax rate was publicized to have risen to 102%. This was to be known as the "Pomperipossa effect" from a story she published in Expressen[7] on 3 March 1976. The publication led to a stormy tax debate. In the parliamentary election later in the same year the Social Democrat government was voted out for the first time in 44 years, and the Lindgren tax debate was one of several controversies that may have contributed to this result.
Astrid, however, remained a Social Democrat for the rest of her life.[8]
Astrid Lindgren was well known both for her support for children's and animal rights, and for her opposition to corporal punishment. In 1994, she received the Right Livelihood Award (also known as the Alternative Nobel Prize), "...For her commitment to justice, non-violence and understanding of minorities as well as her love and caring for nature."

In 1967, Rabén & Sjögren established an annual literary prize, the Astrid Lindgren Prize, in connection with her 60th birthday. The prize, SEK 40,000, is awarded to a Swedish language children's author, every year on her birthday in November.
Following Lindgren's death, the government of Sweden instituted the Astrid Lindgren Memorial Award in her memory. The award is the world's largest monetary award for children's and youth literature, in the amount of five million SEK.
The collection of Astrid Lindgren's original manuscripts in Kungliga Biblioteket (the Royal Library), Stockholm, was placed on UNESCO's World heritage list in 2005.
On 6 April 2011, the Bank of Sweden announced that Lindgren's portrait will feature on the 20 kronor banknote, beginning in 2014–15.[9] In the run-up to the announcement of the persons who would feature on the new banknotes, Lindgren's name had been the one most often put forward in the public debate.

In memory of Astrid Lindgren, a memorial sculpture was created next to her childhood home, named "Källa Astrid" ("Astrid's Wellspring" in English). It is situated at the same place where Astrid Lindgren first heard fairy tales.
It consists of an artistic representation of a young person's head (1.37m high),[10] flattened on top, in the corner of a square pond, and, just above the water, a ring of rosehip thorn (with a single rosehip bud attached to it). The sculpture was initially slightly different in design and intended to be part of a fountain set in the city center, but the people of Vimmerby vehemently opposed the idea. Astrid Lindgren furthermore had stated that she never wanted to be represented as a statue. (However, there is a statue of Lindgren in the city center.) The memorial was sponsored by the culture council of Vimmerby.
Lindgren's childhood home is near the statue and open to the public.[11] Just 100 metres from "Astrid's Wellspring" is a museum in her memory. The author is buried in Vimmerby where the Astrid Lindgrens World theme park is also located. The children's museum Junibacken, Stockholm, was opened in June 1996, with the main theme of the permanent exhibition being devoted to Astrid Lindgren: the heart of the museum is a theme train ride through the world of Astrid Lindgren's novels.

Astrid Lindgren
Bibliography

أشهر كاتبة عرفها أدب الطفل على مر التاريخ
-ولدت استريد ليندجرين (Astrid Lindgren) في 14 نوفمبر 1907 في مدينة فيمربي بوسط السويد.
-بدأت استريد في كتابة القصص عند سن 37 وكانت قصة اليتيمة المتمردة “بيبي لونجستوكينج” أو “جنان ذات الجورب الطويل” أول وأشهر كتبها التي بلغت سبعة ملايين نسخة ثم تحولت بعد ذلك إلى دراما، و ترجمت إلى جميع لغات العالم، وبلغ عدد كتبها أكثر من 100 قصة وكتاب، ترجمت غالبيتها إلى 76 لغة من لغات العالم المعروفة، وتم بيع ملايين النسخ منها حول العالم.
-لقبت استريد بـ (معلمة الأجيال) السويدية، والغريب أن انطلاقتها كانت مجرد نتيجة للحظة طفولية بريئة تقول عنها في إحدى التصريحات: “بدايتي الحقيقية، ككاتبة أطفال بدأت في عام 1941 عندما أصيبت ابنتي كارين بمرض التهاب الرئة وهي في السابعة من عمرها، في كل يوم، وأنا أجلس بجانب سريرها، كانت تلح علي لقص حكايات لها، وفي إحدى المرات سألتها: أي الحكايات تريدين؟ فأجابت: حكاية بيبي ذات الجوارب الطويلة، لقد اخترعت هي هذا الاسم في لمح البصر، لهذا لم أسألها أي شيء، فقط بدأت بسرد القصة، ولأن الاسم غريب فقد سردت حكاية غريبة أيضا، بعد وقت أحبت ابنتي هذه الحكاية وأحبها أصدقاؤها، وبقيت ولسنوات أحكي لهم حكايات بيبي”.

Poems


by Paul Celan, Romania/France, (1920-1970)


The first Anvil edition of this book was awarded the EC's inaugural European Translation Prize in 1990. Paul Celan is among the most important German-language poets of the century, and, in George Steiner's words, 'almost certainly the major European poet of the period after 1945.' He was born in 1920 into a Jewish family in Bukovina, a German enclave in Romania which was destroyed by the Nazis. His parents were taken to a concentration camp in 1942, and did not return; Celan managed to escape deportation and to survive. After settling in Paris in 1948, he soon gained widespread recognition as a poet with the publication of his first collection of poems in 1952. Language, Paul Celan said, was the only thing that remained intact for him after the war. His experiences of the war years and of the loss of his parents are the recurrent themes of his poetry. In the end they led as well to his suicide by drowning in 1970.This third Anvil edition of Michael Hamburger's selected translations now includes the previously uncollected longer poem "Wolf's Bean", several additional short poems, and the essay "On Translating Celan" in which he discusses the challenges faced over many years in his engagement with Celan's poetry. The first Anvil edition of this book was awarded the EC's inaugural European Translation Prize in 1990.

Paul Celan
(23 November 1920 – c. 20 April 1970) was a Romanian poet and translator. He was born as Paul Antschel into a Jewish family in the former Kingdom of Romania (now Ukraine), and changed his name to "Paul Celan" (where Celan in Romanian would be pronounced Chelan, and was derived from Ancel, pronounced Antshel),[1] becoming one of the major German-language poets of the post-World War II era.

Celan was born in 1920 into a German-speaking Jewish family in Cernăuţi, Northern Bukovina, a region then part of Romania and earlier part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, among others (now part of Ukraine). His father, Leo Antschel, was a Zionist who advocated his son's education in Hebrew at Safah Ivriah, an institution previously convinced of the wisdom of assimilation into Austrian culture, and one which favourably received Chaim Weizmann of the World Zionist Organization in 1927.
His mother, Fritzi, was an avid reader of German literature who insisted German be the language of the house. After his Bar Mitzvah in 1933, Celan abandoned Zionism (at least to some extent) and finished his formal Hebrew education, instead becoming active in Jewish Socialist organizations and fostering support for the Republican cause in the Spanish Civil War. His earliest known poem, titled Mother's Day 1938 was an earnest, if sentimental, profession of love. In 1934, fourteen-year old Paul wrote a letter to his aunt Minna in Palestine, in which there is the eloquent phrase: "With regard to anti-Semitism in our school, I could write you a 300-page book."
Paul chose the "Lyceum Mihai great governor" (now Chernivtsi school No. 5 before school No. 23), where he studied from 1934 until 1938; the students there had ample opportunity to develop their language and literary skills. At this time Celan began to secretly write poetry. Celan graduated from the gymnasium/preparatory school called Liceul Marele Voivod Mihai (Great Voivode Mihai Prep School) in 1938.[2]
In 1938 Celan traveled to Tours, France, to study medicine. The Anschluss precluded Vienna, and Romanian schools were harder to get into due to the newly-imposed Jewish quota. He returned to Cernăuţi in 1939 to study literature and Romance languages. His journey to France took him through Berlin as the events of Kristallnacht unfolded, and also introduced him to his uncle, Bruno Schrager, who was later among the French detainees who died at Birkenau.

The Soviet occupation of Bukovina in June 1940 deprived Celan of any lingering illusions about Stalinism and Soviet Communism stemming from his earlier socialist engagements; the Soviets quickly imposed bureaucratic reforms on the university where he was studying Romance philology and deportations to Siberia started. Nazi Germany and Romania brought ghettos, internment, and forced labour a year later (see Romania during World War II).
On arrival in Cernăuţi July 1941 the German SSEinsatzkommando and their Romanian allies set the city's Great Synagogue on fire. In October, the Romanians deported a large number of Jews after forcing them into a ghetto, where Celan translated William Shakespeare's Sonnets and continued to write his own poetry, all the while being exposed to traditional Yiddish songs and culture. Before the ghetto was dissolved in the fall of that year, Celan was pressed into labor, first clearing the debris of a demolished post office, and then gathering and destroying Russian books.
The local mayor strove to mitigate the harsh circumstances until the governor of Bukovina had the Jews rounded up and deported, starting on a Saturday night in June 1942. Celan tried to convince his parents that they leave the country to escape sure prosection, however they wanted to stay in their home. After an argument about this topic, Celan was so angry with them that he spent the night at a family friend's house. It was this night, June 21, that his parents were taken from their home and sent by train to an internment camp in Transnistria, where two-thirds of the deportees perished. Celan's parents were sent to a labour camp in the Ukraine, where his father likely perished of typhus and his mother was shot dead after being exhausted by forced labour. Later that year, after having himself been taken to a labour camp in the Romanian Old Kingdom, Celan would receive reports of his parents' deaths.
Celan remained imprisoned until February 1944, when the Red Army's advance forced the Romanians to abandon the camps, whereupon he returned to Cernăuţi shortly before the Soviets returned to reassert their control. There, he worked briefly as a nurse in the mental hospital. Early versions of "Todesfuge" ("Death Fugue") were circulated at this time, a poem that clearly relied on accounts coming from the now-liberated camps in Poland. Friends from this period recall Celan expressing immense guilt over his separation from his parents, whom he had tried to convince to go into hiding prior to the deportations, shortly before their death.

Considering emigration to Palestine and wary of widespread Soviet antisemitism, Celan left the USSR in 1945 for Bucharest, where he remained until 1947. He was active in the Jewish literary community as both a translator of Russian literature into Romanian, and as a poet, publishing his work under a variety of pseudonyms. The literary scene of the time was richly populated with surrealists – Gellu Naum, Ilarie Voronca, Gherasim Luca, Paul Păun, and Dolfi Trost – and it was in this period that Celan developed pseudonyms both for himself and his friends, including the one he took as his pen name.
A version of "Todesfuge" appeared as "Tangoul Morţii" ("Death Tango") in a Romanian translation of May 1947. The surrealist ferment of the time was such that additional remarks had to be published explaining that the dancing and musical performances of the poem were realities of the extermination camp life. Night and Fog, the earliest documentary on Auschwitz (Alain Resnais, 1955), includes a description of the Auschwitz Orchestra, an institution organized by the SS to assemble and play selections of German dances and popular songs. (The SS man interviewed by Claude Lanzmann for his film Shoah, who rehearsed the songs prisoners were made to sing in the death camp, remarked that no Jews who had taught the songs survived.)

Due to the emerging of the communist regime in Romania, Celan fled Romania for Vienna, Austria. It was there that he befriended Ingeborg Bachmann, who had just completed a dissertation on Martin Heidegger. Facing a city divided between occupying powers and with little resemblance to the mythic city it once was, which had harboured the then-shattered Austro-Hungarian Jewish community, he moved to Paris in 1948. In that year his first poetry collection, Der Sand aus den Urnen ("Sand from the Urns"), was published in Vienna by A. Sexl. His first few years in Paris were marked by intense feelings of loneliness and isolation, as expressed in letters to his colleagues, including his longtime friend from Cernăuţi, Petre Solomon. It was also during this time that he exchanged many letters with Diet Kloos, a young Dutch singer and anti-Nazi resister who saw her husband of a few months tortured to death. She visited him twice in Paris between 1949 and 1951.
In 1952, Celan's writing began to gain recognition when he read his poetry on his first reading trip to Germany[3] where he was invited to read at the semiannual meetings of Group 47.[4] At their May meeting he read his poem "Todesfuge" ("Death Fugue"), a depiction of concentration camp life. His reading style, which was maybe based on the way a prayer is given in a synagogue and Hungarian folk poems, was off-putting to some of the German audience. His poetry received a mixed reaction.[3] When Ingeborg Bachmann, with whom Celan had an affair, won the group's prize for her collection Die gestundete Zeit (The Extended Hours), Celan (whose work had received only six votes) said "After the meeting, only six people remembered my name". He did not attend any other meeting of the group.
In November 1951, he met the graphic artistGisèle de Lestrange, in Paris. He sent her many love letters, influenced by Franz Kafka's correspondence with Milena Jesenska and Felice Bauer. They married on December 21, 1952, despite the opposition of her aristocratic family, and during the following 18 years they wrote over 700 letters, including a very active exchange with Hermann Lenz and his wife, Hanne.[citation needed] He made his living as a translator and lecturer in German at the École Normale Supérieure. He was a close friend of Nelly Sachs, who later won the Nobel Prize for literature.
Celan became a French citizen in 1955 and lived in Paris. Celan's sense of persecution increased after the widow of a friend, the French-German poet Yvan Goll, accused him of having plagiarised her husband's work. Celan was awarded the Bremen Literature Prize in 1958 and the Georg Büchner Prize in 1960.
Celan committed suicide by drowning in the Seine river in Paris, around April 20, 1970

The death of his parents and the experience of the Shoah (The Holocaust) are defining forces in Celan's poetry and his use of language. In his Bremen Prize speech, Celan said of language after Auschwitz that:
Only one thing remained reachable, close and secure amid all losses: language. Yes, language. In spite of everything, it remained secure against loss.
But it had to go through its own lack of answers, through terrifying silence, through the thousand darkness's of murderous speech. It went through. It gave me no words for what was happening, but went through it. Went through and could resurface, 'enriched' by it all.
It has been written, inaccurately perhaps, that German is the only language that allows (us?) to penetrate the horror of Auschwitz, to describe death from within.

- من مواليد 1920 ابن عائلة يهودية. في اوكرانيا.
- سجن واليده في احد مراكز الاعتقال النازي عام 1942 وعمره 22 سنة لكنه نجى هو بنفسه.
- غير اسمه الى بول سيلان ربما لتجنب الاضطهاد النازي.
- قال ان اللغة هي الشي الوحيد الذي بقي له بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية وبعد فقدان والديه في مركز الاعتقال المذكور.
- اثر الحرب وفقدان والديه الافاكر الرئيسة التي يعالجها في اشعاره.
- انهى حياته منتحرا في عام 1970 وهو في سن الخمسين.
- كانت اولى قصائدة بعنوان عيد لام عام 1938 .
- عام 1934 وبنما كان في سن 14 كتب رسالة لعمته شكى فيها من التميز العنصري.
- درس في مدرسة داخلية من عام 1934 وحتى عام 1938.
- سجن في مراكز الاعتقال النازي حتى عام 1944.
- عمل في الاتحاد السوفيتي بعد اطلاق سراحه من قبل القوات السوفيتية ممرضا في مستشفى الامراض العقلية.
- كان يشعر بمرارة الذنب لانه انفصل عن والديه والذي حاول انقناعهم بالاختباء قبل اعتقالهم ثم موتهم.
هو حتما مأزوم والادلة كثرة واهمها انه انهى حياته منتحرا وهو في سن الخمسين، وهو يتيم اجتماعي بسبب انصاله عن والديه للدراسة، وعاش طفولة مأساوية بسبب التميز والحرب لكنه ايضا فاقد الاب والام في سن 22 وهو ما يجعله.

Demons (Russian: Бесы, transliteration: Bésy, "demons") is an 1872 novel by Fyodor Dostoyevsky. Though titled The Possessed in the initial English translation, Dostoyevsky scholars and later translations favour the titles The Devils or Demons.
An extremely political book, Demons is a testimonial of life in Imperial Russia in the late 19th century.
As the revolutionarydemocrats begin to rise in Russia, different ideologies begin to collide. Dostoyevsky casts a critical eye on both the left-wing idealists, portraying their ideas and ideological foundation as demonic,[1] and the conservative establishment's ineptitude in dealing with those ideas and their social consequences.
This form of intellectual conservativism tied to the Slavophile movement of Dostoyevsky's day, called Pochvennichestvo, is seen to have continued on into its modern manifestation in individuals like Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn.[2] Dostoyevsky's novels focus on the idea that utopias and positivist ideas, in being utilitarian, were unrealistic and unobtainable.[3]
The book has five primary ideological characters: Verkhovensky, Shatov, Stavrogin, Stepan Trofimovich, and Kirilov. Through their philosophies, Dostoyevsky describes the political chaos seen in 19th century Russia.

The original Russian title uses a relatively rare word, besy (singular bes), from old Slavic mythology, which means "demons" or "evil spirits" and could be compared to The Beast, which may evoke similar associations, as in "possessed by the beast" or "possessed by demons". It conveys the idea of the gradual collapse of Russian Orthodoxy and the imperceptible spread of besy, "little beasts", "demons" or "evil spirits" symbolizing the oncoming nihilistic concepts of the first half of the 20th century, which gives the original title frightening connotations.
The title has been an ongoing source of confusion among readers unfamiliar with the work. There are at least three popular translations of the title: The Possessed, The Devils, and Demons. This is largely a result of Constance Garnett's earlier translation that popularized the novel and gained it notoriety as The Possessed among English speakers; however, Dostoyevsky scholars said the original translation was inaccurate. These scholars argued that The Possessed "points in the wrong direction" and interpreted the original Russian title Бесы (Besy; the plural of bies, "an evil spirit") as referring not to those who are "possessed" but rather to those who are doing the possessing as "The Possessors". Some insist that the difference is crucial to a full understanding of the novel:
It would be simpler if the title were indeed The Possessed, as it was first translated into English (and into French – a tradition to which Albert Camus contributed in his dramatization of the novel). This misrendering made it possible to speak of Dostoevsky's characters as demoniacs in some unexamined sense, which lends them a certain glamor and even exonerates them to a certain extent. We do see a number of people here behaving as if they were 'possessed.' The implications of the word are almost right, but it points in the wrong direction. And in any case it is not the title Dostoevsky gave his novel. Discovering that the Russian title Besy refers not to possessed but to possessors, we then apply this new term 'demons' to the same set of characters in the same unexamined way – a surprising turnabout, if one thinks of it.[4]
As a result, newer editions of the novel are, rarely if ever, rendered under Garnett's earliest title "The Possessed". A more precise rendering of the Demons (Бесы) as an event and turning point in Russian history would be "The Possessing" of Russia by the demonic ideas or "evil spirits" reflected in the novel's characters.

The novel takes place in a provincial Russian setting, primarily on the estates of Stepan Trofimovich Verkhovensky and Varvara Stavrogina. Stepan Trofimovich's son, Pyotr Verkhovensky, is an aspiring revolutionary conspirator who attempts to organize a knot of revolutionaries in the area. He considers Varvara Stavrogina's son, Nikolai, central to his plot because he thinks Nikolai Stavrogin has no sympathy for mankind whatsoever.
Verkhovensky gathers conspirators like the philosophizing Shigalyov, suicidal Kirillov, and the former military man Virginsky, and he schemes to solidify their loyalty to him and each other by murdering Ivan Shatov, a fellow conspirator. Verkhovensky plans to have Kirillov, who was committed to killing himself, take credit for the murder in his suicide note. Kirillov complies and Verkhovensky murders Shatov, but his scheme falls apart. He escapes, but the remainder of his aspiring revolutionary crew is arrested. In the denouement of the novel, Nikolai Stavrogin kills himself, tortured by his own misdeeds

لو لم يحضر شقيق زوجة دستويفسكي "سنيتكين" إلىدردسن, ولو لم يحمل معه تفاصيل الحادثة التي فتحت أبواب الشياطين لدستويفسكي, لكانبالإمكان الآن أن نتحدث عن رواية: الخاطئ الكبير". أكبر عمل روائي كان مقدراً له أنيرى النور, وتفرق لعدة أعمال في السنوات اللاحقة لدستويفسكي.

بعد أن ظهرترواية الحرب والسلم لتولستوي بكامل مجلداتها تلقفها القراء والنقاد بكل حماس ولهفة. دستويفسكي أصابته روح المنافسه القائمة آنذاك, فهو يشعر بأن الجمهور لم يستقبل عمله "الأبلة" بمثل مااستقبلت به "الجريمة والعقاب", كبريائه وكرامته معرضتان للخطر, ويجب أن يجذب الإنتباه إليه من جديد. بعد أن شاهد نجاح عمل تولستوي الملحمي, أرادأن يكتب على غرار الحرب والسلم, رواية مؤلفة من خمس مجلدات تقريباً تتناول مسالةالخالق والخطيئة, والأهم : وجود الله وتقديم البراهين على ذلك.

هذا العمللا يستطيع أن يكتبه إلا متشكك كبير مر بتجربة روحية هائلة. من غير دستويفسكي يستطيعأن يكتب مثلها! هذا العمل مستسقى من تجربته العاصفه. حياة الغربة أيقظت فيه المشاعرالمسيحية العميقة والأفكار الدينية الصافية وخلصته من التعنت والمكابرة فجعلته أكثرطيبة وتسامحاً واستسلاماً، الأمر الذي تجلى بأفضل تعبير فى مؤلفاته. بطل القصةسيكون طوال حياته تارة ملحداً, وتارة مؤمنا, ومتعصباً, ومتزمتاً, ثم يعود للإلحادمرة أخرى, وفي الأخير سيختار الإيمان بالله والأرض الروسية.

فكرة العملتقوم على خمس مستويات, القصة الأولى مقدمة عن الفكر الثقافي الروسي بشكل عام, وطفولة ومراهقة البطل, ثم اشتراكة باقتراف جريمة من جرائم الحق العام. القصةالثانية تدرو في أحد الأديرة المسيحية حيث يقيم الأسقف تيخون زادونسكي, ويذهب البطلإلى هذا الدير بضغط من الأهل لطلب العلم والتربية, ثم يسقط هذا الفتى المثقلبالأفكار تحت نيران رجل الدين. فيتعرف على بوشكين وبيلنسكي وعلى أفكار الشبيبةالروسية. القصة الثالثة تحكي فتوة البطل, وسنوات دارسته واهتمامه بالفلسفةوالإلحاد, وهو يظهر الغطرسة والإحتقار العميق للبشرية. تبلغ الطبيعة الإجرامية فيهذا العمل حدها الأقصى. صورة هذا البطل مشابه بشكل كبير لشخصية بتشورين بطل روايةليرمنتوف بطل من هذا الزمان, الكسيح أخلاقياً والكاره للبشر. القصة الرابعة مخصصهللبحث عن أزمة البطل العميقة, ووصف حالة الترحال للبحث عن أجوبة لما يعتمر في عقلهمن أفكار. والجزء الأخير يتم الإعلان عن ولادة الآثم: متشكك روسي يختار بعد ترددطويل بين المدارس الدينية الإيمان بالله والأرض الروسية, ويصبح ودوداً ومحباًللجميع , ويعترف بجريمته.

بقيت هذه الأفكار مجرد خطوط رئيسية لعمل لا يمكنكتابته في الخارج لسبب واحد. تستلزم كتابة هذا العمل قراءة مكتبة كاملة حول الكتابالملحدين, والكتاب الكاثوليك والأرثوذكس, ويجب من أجل كتابة هذه الرواية أن يرجعدستويفسكي إلى الوطن, إلى روسيا. يجب عليه أن أن لا يرى الدير وحسب, بل أن يقيم فيهلبعض الوقت.

عند رسم دستويفسكي الخطوط العريضة لهذه الأفكار حدث الحادث الذيأجهز على الخاطئ, وحول هذا العمل إلى عدة أعمال نشرت في الشياطين, والمراهق, والأخوة كارامازوف. هذا الحادث هو الذي أشعل دستويفسكي ليكتب إحدى خوالده الخمس : الشياطين

ميخايلوفيتش دوستويفسكي
(11 نوفمبر 1821 - 9 فبراير 1881).
واحد من أكبر الكتاب الروس ومن أفضل الكتاب العالميين، وأعماله كان لها أثر عميق ودائم على أدب القرن العشرين.
شخصياته دائماً في أقصى حالات اليأس وعلى حافة الهاوية، ورواياته تحوي فهماً عميقاً للنفس البشرية كما تقدم تحليلاً ثاقباً للحالة السياسية والاجتماعية والروحية لروسيا في ذلك الوقت.
العديد من أعماله المعروفة تعد مصدر إلهام للفكر والأدب المعاصر، وفي بعض الأحيان يذكر أنه مؤسس مذهب الوجودية

يتمتع الكاتب الروسي فيودور ميخائيلوفيتش دوستويفسكي (1821 - 1881) بشهرة عالمية واسعة. وقد ترجمت اعماله إلى العديد من اللغات وأصبحت افكارها وشخصياتها جزءا من تراث البشرية الروحي. ان اثمن ما في تراثه هو رواياته. وقد اشتهرت في العالم بصفة خاصة روايتا "الجريمة والعقاب" و"الاخوة كارامازوف" اللتان عبرتا باكمل صورة عن فلسفة الكاتب. بيد ان رواياته الأخرى "مذلون ومهانون" و"الابله" و"الشياطين" و"المراهق" على جانب كبير من الاهمية والطرافة.
كان دوستويفسكي إنسانا ابيا وعنيدا في الدفاع عن معتقداته، وقد ترك ذلك كل بصماته على اعماله. ولد فيدور دوستويفسكي في 11 نوفمبر/تشرين الثاني عام 1821 بموسكو في اسرة طبيب عسكري ينحدر من فئة رجال الدين منح لقاء استقامته في الخدمة لقب نبيل. وكانت امه تنتمي إلى فئة التجار. وكان أبوه رجلا صعب الطباع وعلاوة على ذلك كان مريضا بالصرع الذي انتقل بالوراثة إلى ابنه. اما امه فربت فيه المشاعر الدينية العميقة. ومنذ صباه ولع دوستويفسكي بميول التمرد وانبهر بالطموحات المثالية للكاتب الألماني شيلر، واحب روايات ديكنز الذي كان يجيد اثارة العطف على الناس المهانين. وكانت قريبة إلى نفسه تعرية التناقضات الاجتماعية في أعمال بلزاك الذي ترجم له فيودور دوستويفسكي رواية "أوجيني غراندي" قبل عامين من اصداره لاول عمل ادبي هو رواية "المساكين" عام 1846 التي نشرت في مجلة "سوفريمينيك "(المعاصر) واقبل عليه القراء بتهافت قوي.
كان فيودور دوستويفسكي يعيش آنذاك في بطرسبورغ حيث تخرج من كلية الهندسة، لكنه لم يلتحق بالوظيفة، إذ لمس في نفسه انه اديب بالفطرة. وتعرف فيدور دوستويفسكي عن قرب بالناقد الروسي البارز فيساريون بيلينسكي الذي كان يتزعم كوكبة من الادباء الشبان من انصار ما يسمى بـ "المدرسة الطبيعية" وهي التسمية التي اصطلح آنذاك على إطلاقها على ادباء الاتجاه الواقعي. ثم توالت بعد رواية "المساكين" اعمال الكاتب الأخرى "المثل"(أو الشبه) و" ربة المنزل"و"الليالي البيضاء" التي كشفت عن جوانب جديدة من موهبته لكنها لم تجلب له اهتمام الناس. ثم تعرف دوستويفسكي بالمثقف الروسي ميخائيل بيتراشيفسكي الذي تجمع حوله اولئك الذين اسرتهم أفكار الفيلوسوف الفرنسي شارل فورييه الاشتراكية ودعواته إلى تغيير المجتمع. وانضم فيودور دوستويفسكي إلى حلقة "زملاء بيتراشيفسكي" الذين اسسوا جماعة شبه سرية. وتمكنت الشرطة من تتبع الجماعة حتى القت القبض على اعضائها في ربيع عام 1849. وحكم على دوستويفسكي بالاعدام، لكنه في آخر لحظة وقبل تنفيذ حكم الاعدام بحقه صدر مرسوم قيصري يقضى باستبدال الاعدام باربعة اعوام من الاعمال الشاقة في مقاطعة اومسك بسيبيريا. وعايش دوستويفسكي عمليا وهو واقف على منصة الاعدام ويتدلى فوق رأسه حبل المشنقة، عايش طقوس تنفيذ حكم الاعدام التي ضلت تلازمه طوال حياته، وقد وصف هذا المشهد الرهيب في روايته "الابله".
وقد وصف حياته وهو يقضي حكم الاعمال الشاقة في كتابه "ذكريات من منزل الاموات". وعلاوة على ذلك التحق بالخدمة العسكرية جنديا في سيبيريا. ولم يتمكن الكاتب من العودة إلى الحياة الطبيعية وممارسة نشاطه الادبي بحرية الا بعد وفاة القيصر نيكولاي الأول. احيل دوستويفسكي عام 1859 إلى معاشالتقاعد لسوء صحته بعد أن ترقى إلى رتبة ملازم أول في الجيش القيصري. ونال ترخيصا بان يعيش في مدينة تفير في شمال غرب روسيا، وظل تحت رقابة الشرطة حتى عام 1870. وساعد دوستويفسكي شقيقه ميخائيل في اصدار مجلة اطلق عليها "الزمان". وبعد اغلاق تلك المجلة اعيد اصدارها تحت عنوان " العصر" ونشر دوستويفسكي بهاتين المجلتين مؤلفاته ""ذكريات من منزل الاموات" و" مذلون ومهانون" و"رسائل من القبو السري ". قام دوستويفسكي في مطلع ستينات القرن التاسع عشر بزيارة البلدان الغربية حيث اولع هناك بلعب القمار ،الامر الذي جعله يواجه دوماً حاجة ماسة إلى الاموال واضطره إلى عقد صفقات غير عادلة مع اصحاب النشر والطباعة لاصدار رواياته. وكاد يفقد حقوق المؤلف. وانقطع صدور مجلة "العصر" بعد وفاة اخيه ميخائيل عام 1865. ومن اجل الاسراع في كتابة روايته الشهيرة "الجريمة والعقاب" عقد دوستويفسكي اتفاقاً مع كاتبة اختزال شابة اسمها آنا سنيتكينا التي تزوجها فيما بعد. وقامت سنيتكينا بتسيير الامور المالية لزوجها ودافعت عن حقوقه لدى نشر روايته الجديدة مما ساعده في الحصول على مبلغ لا بأس به مقابل عمله الادبي. وتعهد دوستويفسكي مقابل ذلك لزوجته بان
الاخوة كارامازوف يتخلى عن القمار نهائيا. لكن هذا الموضوع ظهر مجددا على صفحات روايته الجديدة "المقامر" التي صدرت عام 1866.
عاش دوستويفسكي الاعوام الثمانية الأخيرة من حياته في مدينة ستارايا روزا بمحافظة نوفغورود بشمال غرب روسيا. وتعد هذه المرحلة مثمرة في نتاجه الادبي حين أبدع روايات "الشياطين" عام 1872 و"المراهق" عام 1875 و" الاخوة كارامازوف" عام 1880. وذاع صيته في روسيا كلها وخاصة بعد القائه كلمة مشهورة في مراسم افتتاح تمثال الشاعر الروسي العظيم الكسندر بوشكين في موسكو. لكن المجد الحقيقي واكليل الغار نزلا على دوستويفسكي بعد وفاته. واعترف الفيلوسوف الألماني المعروف فريدريك نيتشه ان دوستويفسكي كان بالنسبة له سيكولوجيا وحيدا جديرا بالتعلم منه.
يتصارع في عالم دوستويفسكي الفني الرحمن مع الشيطان والخير مع الشر والحقيقة مع الزيف. ومضمار هذا الصراع هو قلب الإنسان على حد تعبيراحدى شخصيات روايتة "الاخوة كارامازوف". توفي الكاتب الروسي الكبير فيودور دوستويفسكي في 11 فبراير/شباط عام 1881 ودفن في كاتدرائية ألكسندر نيفسكي في مدينة بطرسبورغ التي كانت انذاك عاصمة للامبراطورية الروسية.
يعتبر فيودور الطفل الثاني من سبعة اطفال ولدوا لـ ميخائيلوفيتش وماريا دوستويفسكي، حيث كان والده جراحاً متقاعداً مدمناً على الخمور سريع الانفعال، وحيث كان يعمل في مستشفى مريانسكي للفقراء في أحد أحياء موسكو. كانت المستشفى مقامة في أحد اسوأ احياء موسكو. حيث كان يحوي هذا الحي على مقبرة للمجرمين ،و محمية للمجانين، ودار ايتام للأطفال المتخلى عنهم من قبل اهاليهم. وقد كان لهذه المنطقة التأثيرا القوى على دوستويفسكي الصغير. الذي اثار شفقته وانتباهه اضطهاد وقلق الفقراء. مع منع اهله لذلك. فيودور كان يحب ان يتمشى في حديقة المستشفى، حيث كان المرضى يجلسون ليلمسوا لمحات من اشعة الشمس. فيودور كان يستمتع بالجلوس إلى هؤلاء المرضى والسماع لحكاياتهم.
هناك الكثير من الحكايات عن تحكم الأب ميخائيل الاستبدادي في التعامل مع ابنائه. عند عودته من العمل، كان يأخذ غفوة بينما يأمر ابناؤه ان يجلسوا بصمت مطلق، يقفون بجانب ابيهم النائم "نوما خفيفاً" في تناوب ليبعدوا الذباب الذي يقترب من وجهه. في كل الأحوال، من وجهة نظر يوسف فرانك، كاتب سيره لـ دوستويفسكي، ان شخصية الأب في رواية الإخوة كارامازوف ليست مبنيه على أساس شخصية الأب دوستويفسكي. الخطابات والحسابات البنكيه تبين انهم كانا يتمتعان بعلاقه حسنه ومتحابه.
بعد فترة وجيزه من موت امه بمرض السل في عام 1837، أُرسل دوستويفسكي واخيه إلى اكاديمية الهندسه الحربيه في سانت بترسبرغ. توفي والد فيادور في عام 1839. ومع انه لم يثبت ابدا الا انه من المعتقد انه قد تم قتله على يد رقيقه. بطريقه غير مباشره، غضبوا وسخطوا خلال واحده من انفجاراته العنيفه الناتجه عن الشراب، فكبلوه وقاموا بسكب شراب الفودكا في حلقه إلى ان اختنق. وفي أسطوره أخرى انه قد مات من أسباب طبيعيه، ولكن أحد الجيران اخترع قصة القتل ليشتري املاكه بمبلغ زهيد. صفة الأب المستبد اثرت بشكل كبير في كتابات دوستويفسكي. وكانت واضحه جدا في الشخصيه " فيادور بافلوفيك كرامازوف " المهرج العاطفي والشرير الأب للشخصيات الأربعة الرئيسيه في روايته لعام 1880 " الأخوة كرامازوف "
دوستويفسكي كان مصاب بالصرع، واول نوبه اصابته عندما كان عمره 9 سنوات. نوبات الصرع كانت تصيبه على فترات متفرقه في حياته، ويعتقد ان خبرات دوستويفسكي ادت إلى تشكيل ألأسس في وصفه لصرع الأمير " مايشكين " في روايته " الأبلة"، بالإضافه إلى آخرون.
في اكاديمية الهندسه الحربيه في سانت بترسبرغ، تعلم دوستويفسكي الرياضيات التي يحتقرها. في كل الأحوال تعلم أيضاً الأدب من " شكسبير، باسكال، فيكتور هوجو، وإي.تي.أيه هوفمان. بالرغم من انه ركز على مواد أخرى غير الرياضيات، تمكن من أي يحصل على درجات جيده في الاختبار وحصل على تكليف في 1841. السنه التي عرف انه كتب فيها مسرحيتان رومنسيتان، مستوحاة من الكاتب المسرحي والشاعر الرومانسي الألماني " فريدريك ستشيللر". كانت المسرحيتان، " ماري ستوارت" و" بوريس جودونوف، ". المسرحيتان لم تحفظا. مع ان دوستويفسكي كفتى، دراما تتحدث عن نفسها، وكان يبجل " ستشيللر"، الا انه في السنوات التي انتج فيها جل كتاباته وأفضل رواياته كان عادة يعبث ويهزل به.

ترقى دوستويفسكي إلى ملازم أول عام 1842، وترك كلية الهندسة السنه التاليه. وقد اكمل ترجمة رواية " أوجيني غراندي لأونوريه دي بلزاك، "عام 1843، ولكنها لم تجلب له غير القليل من الاهتمام. قام دوستويفسكي بكتابة خياله الخاص في نهايات 1844 بعدما ترك الجيش. في عام 1845، كتابته الأولى، روايته القصير التي تتضمن رساله مهمه، " الفقراء "، نشرت في مجلة " المعاصرة " وتقبلها الناس بتهافت قوي. دخل مدير تحرير المجلة، الشاعر " نيكولاي نيكراسوف " إلى المكتب وأعلن " لقد ظهر جوجل جديد، يقصد نيقولاي غوغول (كاتب روسي مرموق) "، وقد ايده بلينسكي وأتباعه والكثير، بعدما اكتملت الروايه ونشرت في كتاب، ومن بداية اليوم التالي للنشر، أصبح دوستويفسكي من الأدباء المشاهير في الرابعة والعشرون من عمره.
في عام 1846، " بلينسكي " والكثير غيره لم يتحمسوا روايته " المـِـثِـل " عن دراسه نفسيه لموظف حكومي، يبدله غروره ويفقده حياته. بدأت شهرة دوستويفسكي تهدأ وتبرد. معظم أعماله بعد الفقراء قوبلت بأراء مختلفه، وبدا وقتها أن تنبؤات " بلينسكي " بأن دوستويفسكي سيصبح أحد أفضل كتاب روسيا، كانت خاطئه.

تم القبض على دوستويفسكي وزج به إلى السجن في 23 ابريل من عام 1849، لكونه أحد اعضاء جماعة التفكير المتحرر " جماعة دائرة بتراشيفيسكي، Petrashevsky Circle ". بعد الثوره في عام 1848 في أوروبا كان القيصر " تسار نيكولاس، Tsar Nicholas I " جاف وقاسي في التعامل مع اية جماعات تعمل في الخفاء، والتي احس انها من الممكن ان تهدد الحكم الفردي المتعامل به. في 16 نوفمبر من تلك السنه، كان دوستويفسكي ومعه باقي اعضاء " جماعة دائرة بتراشيفيسكي " قد حكم عليهم بالإعدام. بعد عملية اعدام زائفه، والتي خلالها وقف دوستويفسكي مع باقي الأعضاء في الخارج في اجواء متجمده منتظرين فرقة الإعدام لتقوم بالحكم. تغير حكم الإعدام على دوستويفسكي إلى اربع سنوات من النفي مع العمل الشاق - بالاضافة الي التجنيد اربع سنين ولكن بعد 8 أشهر شفع له بارون عند الامبراطور حتي رقي لظابط ثم الي ملازم ثان مستعيدا بذلك حقوق النبالة ولكن لم يسمح له بالذهاب الي العاصمتين سانت بطرسبرغ وموسكو - في سجن " كاتورجا، katorga " في مقاطعة " اومسك، بسيبيريا، Omsk, Siberia ". بعد سنين شرح دوستويفسكي إلى اخيه المعاناة التي تعرض لها عندما كان " يغلق عليه التابوت ". وصف له الثكنات العسكريه المتداعيه، والتي كما وصفها بكلماته عندما كتب " كان من المفترض ان تهدم منذ سنين ".
في الصيف، اجواء لا تطاق، في الشتاء برد لايحتمل. كل الأرضيات كانت متعفنه. القذاره على الأرض يصل ارتفاعها إلى بوصه (مايعادل 2.5 سنتمتر). من السهل أي ينزلق الشخص ويقع.... كنا محزومون كالسردين في برميل..... لم يكن المكان كافي لتستدير..... من المغرب إلى العشاء، كان من المستحيل ان لا نتصرف كالخنازير.... البراغيث، القمل الخنافس السوداء كانت متواجده بالمكيال..."

Pride and Prejudice is a novel by Jane Austen, first published in 1813. The story follows the main character Elizabeth Bennet as she deals with issues of manners, upbringing, morality, education, and marriage in the society of the landed gentry of early 19th-century England. Elizabeth is the second of five daughters of a country gentleman living near the fictional town of Meryton in Hertfordshire, near London.
Though the story is set at the turn of the 19th century, it retains a fascination for modern readers, continuing near the top of lists of 'most loved books' such as The Big Read.[1] It has become one of the most popular novels in English literature and receives considerable attention from literary scholars. Modern interest in the book has resulted in a number of dramatic adaptations and an abundance of novels and stories imitating Austen's memorable characters or themes. To date, the book has sold some 20 million copies worldwide.[2]
As Anna Quindlen wrote, "Pride and Prejudice is also about that thing that all great novels consider, the search for self. And it is the first great novel to teach us that that search is as surely undertaken in the drawing room making small talk as in the pursuit of a great white whale or the public punishment of adultery."[3]

The novel centers on the Bennet family, consisting of the bookish Mr Bennet, his wife, a woman somewhat lacking in social graces and primarily concerned with her family's fortunes, and their five daughters. The youngest, Lydia, most takes after Mrs Bennet; the eldest, Jane, is kind-hearted and proper; and the narrator, Elizabeth Bennet, is the second-eldest and most takes after her father, sharing his keen wit and occasionally sarcastic outlook.
The narrative opens with Mr Bingley, a wealthy, charismatic and social young bachelor, moving into Netherfield Park in the neighbourhood of the Bennet family. Mr Bingley is soon well received, while his friend Mr Darcy makes a less favorable first impression by appearing proud and condescending at a ball that they attend (he detests dancing and is not much for light conversation). Mr Bingley singles out Jane for particular attention, and it soon becomes apparent that they have formed an attachment to each other, though Jane does not alter her conduct for him, confessing her great happiness only to Lizzie. By contrast, Darcy slights Elizabeth, who overhears and jokes about it despite feeling a budding resentment.
On paying a visit to Mr Bingley's sister, Caroline, Jane is caught in a heavy downpour, catches cold, and is forced to stay at Netherfield for several days. Elizabeth arrives to nurse her sister and is thrown into frequent company with Mr Darcy, who begins to act marginally less coldly towards her.
Mr Collins, a clergyman, pays a visit to the Bennets. Mr Bennet and Elizabeth are much amused by his obsequious veneration of his employer, the noble Lady Catherine de Bourgh, as well as by his self-important and pedantic nature. It soon becomes apparent that Mr Collins has come to Longbourn to choose a wife from among the Bennet sisters (his cousins) and Elizabeth has been singled out. At the same time, Elizabeth forms an acquaintance with Mr Wickham, a militia officer who claims to have been very seriously mistreated by Mr Darcy, despite having been a ward of Mr Darcy's father. This tale, and Elizabeth's attraction to Mr Wickham, fuels her dislike of Mr Darcy.
At a ball given by Mr Bingley at Netherfield, Mr Darcy becomes aware of a general expectation that Mr Bingley and Jane will marry, and the Bennet family, with the exception of Jane and Elizabeth, make a public display of poor manners and decorum. The following morning, Mr Collins proposes marriage to Elizabeth, who refuses him, much to her mother's distress. Mr Collins recovers and promptly becomes engaged to Elizabeth's close friend Charlotte, a homely woman with few prospects. Mr Bingley abruptly quits Netherfield and returns to London, devastating Jane, and Elizabeth becomes convinced that Mr Darcy and Caroline Bingley have colluded to separate him from Jane.
In the spring, Elizabeth visits Charlotte and Mr Collins in Kent. Elizabeth and her hosts are frequently invited to Rosings Park, home of Lady Catherine de Bourgh, Darcy's aunt; coincidentally, Darcy also arrives to visit. Elizabeth meets Darcy's cousin, Colonel Fitzwilliam, who vouches for Darcy's loyalty, using as an example how Darcy had recently stepped in on behalf of a friend, who had formed an attachment to a woman against whom "there were some very strong objections." Elizabeth is astonished to discover that said friend was none other than Mr Bingley, and her dislike of Darcy hardens further. Thus she is of no mood to accept when Darcy arrives and, quite unexpectedly, confesses love for her and begs her hand in marriage. Elizabeth rebukes him, and a heated discussion follows; she charges him with destroying her sister's happiness, with treating Mr Wickham disgracefully, and with having conducted himself towards her in an arrogant, ungentleman-like manner. Mr Darcy, shocked, ultimately responds with a letter giving a good account of (most of) his actions: Wickham had exchanged his legacies for a cash payment, only to return after gambling away the money to reclaim the forfeited inheritance; he then attempted to elope with Darcy's young sister Georgiana, thereby to capture her fortune. Regarding Jane, Darcy claims he had observed no reciprocal interest in Jane for Bingley, and had assumed her not to be in love with him. In addition to this, he cites the "want of propriety" in the behaviour of Mrs Bennet and her three younger daughters. Elizabeth, who had previously despaired over these very behaviors, is forced to admit the truth of Mr Darcy's observations, and begins to wonder whether she has misjudged him.

Some months later, Elizabeth and her Aunt and Uncle Gardiner visit Pemberley, Darcy's estate, believing he will be absent for the day. He returns unexpectedly, and though surprised, he is gracious and welcoming. He treats the Gardiners with great civility. Darcy introduces Elizabeth to his sister, and Elizabeth begins to realize her attraction to him. Their reacquaintance is cut short, however, by the news that Lydia has run away with Mr Wickham. Elizabeth and the Gardiners return to Longbourn, where Elizabeth grieves that her renewed acquaintance with Mr Darcy will end as a result of her sister's disgrace.
Lydia and Wickham are soon found, then married by the clergy; they visit Longbourn, where Lydia lets slip that Mr Darcy was in attendance at her wedding but that this was to have been a secret. Elizabeth is able to discover, from her Aunt Mrs. Gardiner, that in fact Mr. Darcy was responsible for finding the couple and negotiating their marriage, at great personal and monetary expense. Elizabeth is shocked but is unable to dwell further on the topic due to Mr Bingley's return and subsequent proposal to Jane, who immediately accepts.
Lady Catherine de Bourgh later bursts in on Longbourn; intending to thwart local rumour, she warns Elizabeth against marrying Mr Darcy. Elizabeth refuses her demands. Disgusted, Lady Catherine leaves and drops by to inform her nephew on Elizabeth's abominable behaviour. However, this lends hope to Darcy that Elizabeth's opinion of him may have changed. He travels to Longbourn and proposes again, and this time, his pride and her prejudice done away with, Elizabeth accepts

الكبرياء والتحيزأو الكبرياء والتحامل
[1] (بالإنجليزية: Pride and Prejudice) نشرت لاول مرة في 28 كانون الثاني / يناير 1813، هي الأكثر شهرة من روايات جين اوستن واحدة من أولى الروايات الكوميديه الرومانسيه في تاريخ الروايه.
افتتاحية خط واحد من الأكثر شهرة في الادب الإنكليزي - " حقيقة اعترف بها عالميا ،وهي كل قلب رجل يحمل حظا سعيدا ،يجب أن يريد زوجه".
كتبت اولا كبرياء والتحيز بين 1796 و 1797، في البداية دعتها جين اوستن الانطباعات الأولى، ولكن لم تنشر ابدا تحت هذا العنوان، فقد نشرت التنقيحات التالية لاول مرة في 28 كانون الثاني / يناير 1813.. مثل كل سابقاتها، والاحساس والشعور، ونورثانغير الكنيسة، فقد كتب في ستيفينتون، هامبشاير، حيث كانت تعيش اوستن في منزل كاهن الابرشيه.
كبرياء والتحيز هي قصة عاطفية عن الامراة الذكية إليزابيث بينيت والرجل الغني والمعجب بنفسه فيتزويليام دارسي. مع ان هذه الرواية تتكلم عن الحب ففي نفس الوقت تتكلم أيضا عن النظرية المعروفة، المنزلة الاجتماعية.
رواية كبرياء وتحامل من أفضل أعمال وهي الأكثر شهرة من روايات جين اوستن، وقد تحدثت فيها عن القرى الإنجليزية الصغيرة مثل تلك القرى التي عاشت فيها الكاتبة نفسها. وكان موضوع روايتها: الفرح والحزن، الأمل والخوف، النجاح والفشل في الحياة اليومية للناس مثل أولئك الناس الذين تعرفهم جين. فعائلة السيد بينيت في هذه الرواية تشبه عائلة جين اوستن نفسها في الكثير من المواضيع. وجين أوستن تشبه شخصية إليزابيث بينيت إلى حدّ كبير.[2]
تحولت هذه الرواية سينمائيا وتلفزيونيا مرات عديدة جدا عبر افلام سينمائية وافلام تلفزيونية ومسلسلات قصيرة ومسرحيات أيضا ابتدأت منذ ثلاثينات القرن الماضي وما زالت حتى آخر فيلم تم إنتاجه عام 2005 وهو الفيلم البريطاني الذي اخرجه جو وايت في تجربته السينمائية الأولى، ومن تمثيل الممثلة البريطانية كيرا نايتلي التي رشحت عن قيامها بدور شخصية اليزابيث بينيت لاوسكار أفضل ممثلة والممثل الكبير دونالد ساوثرلاند بدور الاب. والفيلم حقق بجانب الاعجاب النقدي والجماهيري اربعة ترشيحات اوسكار وستة في البافتا البريطانية وغيرها من المهرجانات والجوائز السينمائية، وربما يكون هو أفضل الأفلام التي قدمت هذه الرواية بجانب الفيلم الاميركي الذي انتج عام 1940 من إخراج روبيرت زد ليونارد مخرج فلمThe Great Ziegfeld والمرشح لاوسكارين في الإخراج في الثلاثينات، وهو من تمثيل غرير غارسون نجمة الاربعينات والممثل النجم لورانس اوليفييه [3]

==

كبرياء و تحامل:

ولهذا كان على السيدة بينيت ان تفكر بطرق سريعة حتى تتمكن من تزويج بناتها الشابات الـ خمس

ام ان الكبرياء سيكون الجوآب؟

==

Jane Austen (16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817) was an Englishnovelist whose works of romantic fiction, set among the landed gentry, earned her a place as one of the most widely read writers in English literature. Her realism and biting social commentary have gained her historical importance among scholars and critics.[1]
Austen lived her entire life as part of a close-knit family located on the lower fringes of the English landed gentry.[2] She was educated primarily by her father and older brothers as well as through her own reading. The steadfast support of her family was critical to her development as a professional writer.[3] Her artistic apprenticeship lasted from her teenage years into her thirties. During this period, she experimented with various literary forms, including the epistolary novel which she then abandoned, and wrote and extensively revised three major novels and began a fourth.[B] From 1811 until 1816, with the release of Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814) and Emma (1816), she achieved success as a published writer. She wrote two additional novels, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion, both published posthumously in 1818, and began a third, which was eventually titled Sanditon, but died before completing it.
Austen's works critique the novels of sensibility of the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century realism.[4][C] Her plots, though fundamentally comic,[5] highlight the dependence of women on marriage to secure social standing and economic security.[6] Her work brought her little personal fame and only a few positive reviews during her lifetime, but the publication in 1869 of her nephew's A Memoir of Jane Austen introduced her to a wider public, and by the 1940s she had become widely accepted in academia as a great English writer. The second half of the 20th century saw a proliferation of Austen scholarship and the emergence of a Janeite fan culture.
Biographical information concerning Jane Austen is "famously scarce", according to one biographer.[7] Only some personal and family letters remain (by one estimate only 160 out of Austen's 3,000 letters are extant),[8] and her sister Cassandra (to whom most of the letters were originally addressed) burned "the greater part" of the ones she kept and censored those she did not destroy.[9] Other letters were destroyed by the heirs of Admiral Francis Austen, Jane's brother.[10] Most of the biographical material produced for fifty years after Austen's death was written by her relatives and reflects the family's biases in favour of "good quiet Aunt Jane". Scholars have unearthed little information since.[7]

Austen's parents, George Austen (1731–1805), and his wife Cassandra (1739–1827), were members of substantial gentry families. George was descended from a family of woollen manufacturers, which had risen through the professions to the lower ranks of the landed gentry.[12] Cassandra was a member of the prominent Leigh family; they married on 26 April 1764 at Walcot Church in Bath.[13] From 1765 until 1801, that is, for much of Jane's life, George Austen served as the rector of the Anglican parishes at Steventon, Hampshire,[14] and a nearby village. From 1773 until 1796, he supplemented this income by farming and by teaching three or four boys at a time who boarded at his home.[15]
Austen's immediate family was large: six brothers — James (1765–1819), George (1766–1838), Edward (1768–1852), Henry Thomas (1771–1850), Francis William (Frank) (1774–1865), Charles John (1779–1852) — and one sister, Cassandra Elizabeth (Steventon, Hampshire, 9 January 1773 – 1845), who, like Jane, died unmarried.
Cassandra was Austen's closest friend and confidante throughout her life.[16]
Of her brothers, Austen felt closest to Henry, who became a banker and, after his bank failed, an Anglican clergyman. Henry was also his sister's literary agent. A memorial plaque on her brother’s former home at 10 Henrietta Street, was unveiled on 29 April 1999 by actress Amanda Root, accompanied by Jane Austen’s donkey cart from Chawton. It was while staying here that Jane Austen wrote most of her best letters.[17] His large circle of friends and acquaintances in London included bankers, merchants, publishers, painters, and actors: he provided Austen with a view of social worlds not normally visible from a small parish in rural Hampshire.[18]
- George was sent to live with a local family at a young age because, as Austen biographer Le Faye describes it, he was "mentally abnormal and subject to fits".
- He may also have been deaf and mute.[19] Charles and Frank served in the navy, both rising to the rank of admiral.
- Edward was adopted by his fourth cousin, Thomas Knight, inheriting Knight's estate and taking his name in 1812.

جاين أوستن
(16 ديسمبر 1775 - 18 يوليو 1817) (بالإنجليزية: Jane Austen) روائية إنجليزية رواياتها من أفضل ما كتب في اللغة الإنجليزية.
ولدت جاين أوستن في ستيفنتن في بريطانيا عام 1775. والدها كان قسا قروياً لا يملك الكثير من المال، ومع ذلك فقد كانت طفولتها سعيدة. تعلمت جاين في المقام الأول على يدي والدها وإخوتها الأكبر سناً، كما تعلمت من قراءتها الخاصة. في عام 1801 انتقلت اسرتها إلى مدينة باث. لم تحب هذه المدينة وبعد وفاة والدها في عام 1805 انتقلت جين ووالدتها واختها إلى شوتون حيث اهتم بهن أخوها الغني وأعطاهن بيتاً.
قبلت الزواج من رجل ثري ولكن كانت خطوبة قصيره فقد نامت جين لتصحو في صباح مبكر وتهمس في اذن إحدى بنات اشقائها « كل شيء يمكن ان يحدث اي شيء يمكن أن يتحمله الإنسان إلا ان يتزوج بغير حب ».‏
في الفترة من عام 1811 وحتى عام 1816 حققت جين اوستن نجاحا هائلاً ككاتبة حيث نشرت العديد من روايتها مثل احاسيس ومعقولية 1811 وكبرياء وتحامل 1813، حديقة مانسفيلد 1814 Mansfield Park، إيما 1815. كما قامت بعد ذلك بكتابة روايتين هما : دير نورث آنجر Northanger Abbey واقناع اللتان تم نشرهما بعد وفاتها عام 1818. كانت جين أوستن قد بدأت في كتابة رواية أخرى ألا وهي سانديتون Sanditon ولكنها توفيت قبل أن تنتهى من كتابتها حيث كانت مريضة فسافرت مع عائلتها الي ونشستر باحثة عن الشفاء. وتوفيت وهي في الواحدة والأربعين من عمرها.
قال عنها «سومرست موم» لقد وجدت المرأة نفسها عندما ولدت جين وقال عنها المؤرخ الكبير «مالاي » انها أعظم أدباء إنجلترا بعد شكسبير وقال عنها «والترالن » أصبحت جين مقياساً ومرجعاً نعود اليهما كلما أردنا أن نقيم أعمال المؤلفين المحدثين.

جورج اوستن (1731 - 1805) وزوجته كاساندرا (1739 - 1827) كانوا من عائلات نبيله وكبيره تزوجا في 26 أبريل 1764 في كنيسة Walcot.
كانت عائلة أوستن كبيره : ستة اشقاء، جيمس (1765 - 1819), جورج (1766 - 1838)، إدوارد (1767 - 1852)، هنري توماس (1771 - 1850)، فرانسيس وليم (فرانك) (1774 - 1865)، تشارلز جون (1779 - 1852) و أخت واحده : إليزابيث كاساندرا (1773 - 1845)

في أوائل عام 1816، بدأت جين أوستن تشعر بأنها ليست على ما يرام، لكنها تجاهلت مرضها في البدايه، واستمرت في عملها.
واصلت جين عملها على الرغم من مرضها. وقالت أنها ليست راضيه عن انتهاء Elliots وبدأت في كتابة آخر فصلين والانتهاء منها في 6 أغسطس عام 1816. و في يناير 1817 بدأت جين العمل على رواية جديدة، وأكملت منها اتني عشر فصلا قبل أن تتوقف عن العمل في منتصف مارس عام 1817. و كلما تقدم المرض كان اشد فـ كانت تعاني من صعوبة في المشي، وبحلول منتصف أبريل اقتصرت جين إلى فراشها. في مايو رافق هنري جين إلى وينشستر لتلقي العلاج. توفيت جين في 18 جولاي عام 1817 عن عمر يناهز 41 عام.

مع أنها لم تتزوج في حياتها فإن هذا لم يمنعها من كتابة روايات عن الزواج والنساء اللواتي يبحثن عن أزواج. فقد كانت كل صديقاتها يردن الزواج ليرفعن من مكانتهن الاِجتماعية. في نهاية كل رواياتها كل الشخصيات يقعن في حب الرجل المناسب.
الروايات القصصية بقلم جاين أوستن مشهورة لأنها تسخر من القواعد الاجتماعية وتظهر الأسلوب البارع لدى الكاتبة.
بالرغم من أنها شهدت مدة من الحرب والثورة عدم الاستقرار الاجتماعي لم تكتب جين عن الحروب أو عن أحداث عظيمة أخرى.لم تشتبك شخصياتها في مشاكل الحياة الخطيرة، لكن انشغلت في نوع من المشاكل التي يواجهها أي شخص-أشياء تقلق كل شخص في حياته الخاصة وفي حياة الناس القريبين منه.
كان لدى جين إحساساً حاداً لمعرفة طبائع البشر. ورواياتها مليئة بصور الناس الذين يعتبرون أنفسهم أفضل مما هم عليه.[2]
أشهر روايتها هي كبرياء وتحامل (كبرياء والحكم المسبق) وهي قصة عاطفية عن الامراة الذكية إليزابيث بينيت والرجل الغني والمعجب بنفسه فيتزويليام دارسي. مع ان هذه الرواية تتكلم عن الحب ففي نفس الوقت تتكلم أيضا عن النظرية المعروفة، المنزلة الِاجتماعية.
هدية جين الي عالم الادب الغربي هي الرواية الحديثة الأولي بالانجليزية. رواياتها تتكلم عن الحياة اليومية والمشكلات اليومية للطبقة الوسطي. رواياتها كانت من أوائل الكتب التي ناقشت حياة النساء في أوائل القرن التاسع عشر.

- ولدت جين اوستن في عام 1775 وماتت في عام 1817 في سن 42.
- ولدت جاين أوستن في ستيفنتن في بريطانيا عام 1775. والدها كان قسا قروياً لا يملك الكثير من المال
- المعلومات عن سيرتها الذاتية قليلة.، حيث يبدو ان الاغلبية من رسائلها التي خلفتها احرقت ، والمعروف عنها كتب من قبل اقارب لها بعد 50 سنة من موتها، وهي معلومات تتحيز للكاتبة وطبيعة الحاية التي عاشتها.
- لم يتم العثور على اية معلومات اضافية بعد ذلك.
- المعروف ان والدها مات عام 1805 وهي في سن الثلاثين.
- كانت اختها كاسندرا اقرب الناس لها.
- اخوها جورج ارسل ليعش مع عائلة اخرى منذ طفولته لانه كان مرضي عقليا وربما كان اصم .
- الاخ الاخر ادورد تم تبنيه من قبل احد الاقارب.
- وضعت اوستن لدى مرضعة من الجوار لمدة عام وثمانية اشهر.
- ارسلت هي واختها الى مدرسة داخلية ( اكسفورد) منذ عام 1783 أي وهي في سن 8 سنوات.
- مرضتهي واختها بمرض التيفويد وكان جين ان تموت بسبب المرض، وعليه اكملت جين دراستها في المنزل. لكنها عادت الى مدرسة داخليه مرة اخرى بداية عام 1785.
- في عام 1786 عادت البنتان الى المنزل لان والدهما عجز عن دفع تكاليف المدرسة .
- في أوائل عام 1816، بدأت جين أوستن تشعر بأنها ليست على ما يرام، لكنها تجاهلت مرضها في البدايه، واستمرت في عملها.

مأزومة.

The Ramayana


by Valmiki, India, (c 300 BC)

The Ramayana (Sanskrit: रामायण, Rāmāyaṇa, IPA: [rɑːˈmɑːjəɳə] ?) is an ancient Sanskritepic. It is ascribed to the Hindu sage Valmiki and forms an important part of the Hindu canon (smṛti), considered to be itihāsa.[1] The Ramayana is one of the two great epics of India, the other being the Mahabharata.[2] It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal father, ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife and the ideal king.The name Ramayana is a tatpurusha compound of Rāma and ayana ("going, advancing"), translating to "Rama's Journey". The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses in seven books (kāṇḍas) and 500 cantos (sargas),[3] and tells the story of Rama (an avatar of the Hindu preserver-God Vishnu), whose wife Sita is abducted by the king of Sri Lanka, Ravana. Thematically, the Ramayana explores human values and the concept of dharma.[4]
Verses in the Ramayana are written in a 32-syllable meter called anustubh. The Ramayana was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and Indian life and culture. Like the Mahābhārata, the Ramayana is not just a story: it presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages (Vedas) in narrative allegory, interspersing philosophical and devotional elements. The characters Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata, Hanuman and Ravana are all fundamental to the cultural consciousness of India, Nepal, and many South-East Asian countries such as Thailand and Indonesia.
There are other versions of the Ramayana, notably the Ramavataram in Tamil, Buddhist (Dasaratha Jataka No. 461) and Jain adaptations, and also Cambodian, Indonesian, Philippine, Thai, Lao, Burmese and Malay versions of the tale.

Textual history and structure</SPAN>

Traditionally, the Ramayana is attributed to Valmiki, regarded as India's first poet.[5] The Indian tradition is unanimous in its agreement that the poem is the work of a single poet, the sage Valmiki, a contemporary of Rama and a peripheral actor in the drama.[6] The story's original version in Sanskrit is known as Valmiki Ramayana, dating to approximately the 5th to 4th century B.C.[7][8] While it is often viewed as a primarily devotional text, the Vaishnava elements appear to be later accretions possibly dating to the 2nd century BC or later.[8] The main body of the narrative lacks statements of Rama's divinity, and identifications of Rama with Vishnu are rare and subdued even in the later parts of the text.[9]
According to Indian tradition, and according to the Ramayana itself, the Ramayana belongs to the genre of itihāsa, like the Mahabharata. The definition of itihāsa has varied over time, with one definition being that itihāsa is a narrative of past events (purāvṛtta) which includes teachings on the goals of human life.[1] According to Hindu tradition, the Ramayana takes place during a period of time known as Treta Yuga.[10]
In its extant form, Valmiki's Ramayana is an epic poem of some 50,000 lines. The text survives in several thousand partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which appears to date from the 11th century A.D.[11] The text has several regional renderings,[12] recensions and subrecensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two major regional recensions: the northern (N) and the southern (S).[11] Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that "the Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind."[13]
There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last chapters of Valmiki's Ramayana were composed by the original author. Some still believe they are integral parts of the book in spite of some style differences and narrative contradictions between these two chapters and the rest of the book.[14][15]
Famous retellings include the Ramayanam of Kamban in Tamil (ca. 11th–12th century), the Saptakanda Ramayana of Madhava Kandali in Assamese (ca. 14th century), Shri Rama Panchali or Krittivasi Ramayan by Krittibas Ojha in Bengali (ca. 15th Century), Bhavarth Ramayan by sant Eknath in Marathi which is Maharashtra (ca. 16th century) and Ramacharitamanas by Tulasidas in Awadhi which is an eastern form of Hindi (c. 16th century).[12] Adyatma Ramayanam Kilippattu By Thunjethu Ezhuthachan in (Malayalam language).
Period</SPAN>

Some cultural evidence (the presence of sati in the Mahabharata but not in the main body of the Ramayana) suggests that the Ramayana predates the Mahabharata.[16] However, the general cultural background of the Ramayana is one of the post-urbanization period of the eastern part of North India, while the Mahabharata reflects the Kuru areas west of this, from the Rigvedic to the late Vedic period.[17]
By tradition, the text belongs to the Treta Yuga, second of the four eons (yuga) of Hindu chronology. Rama is said to have been born in the Treta Yuga to King Daśaratha in the Ikshvaku vamsa (clan).[18] Maharishi Valmiki, the writer of Ramayana and a contemporary of lord Rama, has described in 3 shaloks [19] the positions of planets at the time of birth of Lord Rama. When the positioning of Planets is analysed with Planetarium Software, the birth date of Lord Rama comes to 10 January, 5114 BCE.[20]
The names of the characters (Rama, Sita, Dasharatha, Janaka, Vasishta, Vishwamitra) are all known in late Vedic literature, older than the Valmiki Ramayana.[21] However, nowhere in the surviving Vedic poetry is there a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki.[22] According to the modern academic view, Vishnu, who according to Bala Kanda was incarnated as Rama, first came into prominence with the epics themselves and further during the 'Puranic' period of the later 1st millennium CE. There is also a version of Ramayana, known as Ramopakhyana, found in the epic Mahabharata. This version is depicted as a narration to Yudhishtira.[23]
There is general consensus that books two to six form the oldest portion of the epic while the first book Bala Kanda and the last the Uttara Kanda are later additions.[24] The author or authors of Bala Kanda and Ayodhya Kanda appear to be familiar with the eastern Gangetic basin region of northern India and the Kosala and Magadha region during the period of the sixteen janapadas as the geographical and geopolitical data is in keeping with what is known about the region. However, when the story moves to the Aranya Kanda and beyond, it seems to turn abruptly into fantasy with its demon-slaying hero and fantastic creatures. The geography of central and South India is increasingly vaguely described. The knowledge of the location of the island of Lanka also lacks detail.[25] Basing his assumption on these features, the historian H.D. Sankalia has proposed a date of the 4th century BC for the composition of the text.[26] A. L. Basham, however, is of the opinion that Rama may have been a minor chief who lived in the 8th or the 7th century BC.[27]
[edit] The 7 Kandas or Books

The Epic is traditionally divided into several major kāṇḍas or books, that deal chronologically with the major events in the life of Rama—Bāla Kāṇḍa, Ayodhya Kāṇḍa, Araṇya Kāṇḍa, Kishkindha Kāṇḍa, Sundara Kāṇḍa, Yuddha Kāṇḍa, and Uttara Kāṇḍa.[12]
The division into 7 kāṇḍas, or books, is as follows:

Kanda/Book


Title


Contents

1
Bāla Kāṇḍa (book of childhood)
The origins and childhood of Rama, born to King Dasharatha of Ayodhya and destined to fight demons. Sita's swayamvara and subsequent wedding to Rama.[28]
2
Ayodhya Kāṇḍa (book of Ayodhya)
The preparations for Rama's coronation in the city of Ayodhya, his exile into the forest, and the regency of Bharata.[28]
3
Araṇya Kāṇḍa (book of the forest)
The forest life of Rama with Sita and Lakshmana, his constant companion. The kidnapping of Sita by the demon king Ravana.[28]
4
Kishkindha Kāṇḍa (book of the monkey kingdom)
Rama meets Hanuman and helps destroy the monkey people's king, Vali, making Vali's younger brother, Sugriva, king of Kishkindha instead.[28]
5
Sundara Kāṇḍa (book of beauty)
Detailed accounts of Hanuman's adventures, including his meeting with Sita. Traditionally read first when reading the Ramayana, this book's name derives from the fond name given Hanuman by his mother.[28]
6
Yuddha Kāṇḍa (book of war) also known as Lanka Kanda
The battle in Lanka between the monkey and the demon armies of Rama and Ravana, respectively. After Ravana is defeated, Sita undergoes the test of fire, completes exile with Rama, and they return to Ayodhya to reign over the Ideal State.[28]
7
Uttara Kāṇḍa (last book)
Rumors of impurity lead to Sita's banishment, during which she gives birth to and raises Lava and Kusha. Rama and Sita reconcile. The twin boys later ascend the throne of Ayodhya, after which Rama departs from the world.[28

The Ramayana is one of the two great Indian epics,the other being the Mahabharata. The Ramayana tells about life in India around 1000 BCE and offers models in dharma. The hero, Rama, lived his whole life by the rules of dharma; in fact, that was why Indian consider him heroic. When Rama was a young boy, he was the perfect son. Later he was an ideal husband to his faithful wife, Sita, and a responsible ruler of Aydohya. "Be as Rama," young Indians have been taught for 2,000 years; "Be as Sita."
The original Ramayana was a 24,000 couplet-long epic poem attributed to the Sanskrit poet Valmiki. Oral versions of Rama's story circulated for centuries, and the epic was probably first written down sometime around the start of the Common Era. It has since been told, retold, translated and transcreated throughout South and Southeast Asia, and the Ramayana continues to be performed in dance, drama, puppet shows, songs and movies all across Asia.
From childhood most Indians learn the characters and incidents of these epics and they furnish the ideals and wisdom of common life. The epics help to bind together the many peoples of India, transcending caste, distance and language. Two all-Indian holidays celebrate events in the Ramayana. Dussehra, a fourteen-day festival in October, commemorates the siege of Lanka and Rama's victory over Ravana, the demon king of Lanka. Divali, the October-November festival of Lights, celebrates Rama and Sita's return home to their kingdom of Ayodhya
Prince Rama was the eldest of four sons and was to become king when his father retired from ruling. His stepmother, however, wanted to see her son Bharata, Rama's younger brother, become king. Remembering that the king had once promised to grant her any two wishes she desired, she demanded that Rama be banished and Bharata be crowned. The king had to keep his word to his wife and ordered Rama's banishment. Rama accepted the decree unquestioningly. "I gladly obey father's command," he said to his stepmother. "Why, I would go even if you ordered it."
When Sita, Rama's wife, heard Rama was to be banished, she begged to accompany him to his forest retreat. "As shadow to substance, so wife to husband," she reminded Rama. "Is not the wife's dharma to be at her husband's side? Let me walk ahead of you so that I may smooth the path for your feet," she pleaded. Rama agreed, and Rama, Sita and his brother Lakshmana all went to the forest.
When Bharata learned what his mother had done, he sought Rama in the forest. "The eldest must rule," he reminded Rama. "Please come back and claim your rightful place as king." Rama refused to go against his father's command, so Bharata took his brother's sandals and said, "I shall place these sandals on the throne as symbols of your authority. I shall rule only as regent in your place, and each day I shall put my offerings at the feet of my Lord. When the fourteen years of banishment are over, I shall joyously return the kingdom to you." Rama was very impressed with Bharata's selflessness. As Bharata left, Rama said to him, "I should have known that you would renounce gladly what most men work lifetimes to learn to give up."

1. Dasharatha, King of Aydohya, has three wives and four sons. Rama is the eldest. His mother is Kaushalya. Bharata is the son of his second and favorite wife, Queen Kaikeyi. The other two are twins, Lakshman and Shatrughna. Rama and Bharata are blue, perhaps indicating they were dark skinned or originally south Indian deities.
2) A sage takes the boys out to train them in archery. Rama has hit an apple hanging from a string.
3) In a neighboring city the ruler's daughter is named Sita. When it was time for Sita to choose her bridegroom, at a ceremony called a swayamvara, the princes were asked to string a giant bow. No one else can even lift the bow, but as Rama bends it, he not only strings it but breaks it in two. Sita indicates she has chosen Rama as her husband by putting a garland around his neck. The disappointed suitors watch.
4) King Dasharatha, Rama's father, decides it is time to give his throne to his eldest son Rama and retire to the forest to seek moksha. Everyone seems pleased. This plan fulfills the rules of dharma because an eldest son should rule and, if a son can take over one's responsibilities, one's last years may be spent in a search for moksha. In addition, everyone loves Rama. However Rama's step-mother, the king's second wife, is not pleased. She wants her son, Bharata, to rule. Because of an oath Dasharatha had made to her years before, she gets the king to agree to banish Rama for fourteen years and to crown Bharata, even though the king, on bended knee, begs her not to demand such things. Broken-hearted, the devastated king cannot face Rama with the news and Kaikeyi must tell him.
5) Rama, always obedient, is as content to go into banishment in the forest as to be crowned king. Sita convinces Rama that she belongs at his side and his brother Lakshman also begs to accompany them. Rama, Sita and Lakshman set out for the forest.
Bharata, whose mother's evil plot has won him the throne, is very upset when he finds out what has happened. Not for a moment does he consider breaking the rules of dharma and becoming king in Rama's place. He goes to Rama's forest retreat and begs Rama to return and rule, but Rama refuses. "We must obey father," Rama says. Bharata then takes Rama's sandals saying, "I will put these on the throne, and every day I shall place the fruits of my work at the feet on my Lord." Embracing Rama, he takes the sandals and returns to Aydohya.
6) Years pass and Rama, Sita and Lakshman are very happy in the forest. Rama and Lakshman destroy the rakshasas (evil creatures) who disturb the sages in their meditations. One day a rakshasa princess tries to seduce Rama, and Lakshmana wounds her and drives her away. She returns to her brother Ravana, the ten-headed ruler of Lanka (Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon), and tells her brother (who has a weakness for beautiful women) about lovely Sita.
Ravana devises a plan to abduct Sita. He sends a magical golden deer which Sita desires. Rama and Lakshman go off to hunt the deer, first drawing a protective circle around Sita and warning her she will be safe as long as she does not step outside the circle. As they go off, Ravana (who can change his shape) appears as a holy man begging alms. The moment Sita steps outside the circle to give him food, Ravana grabs her and carries her off the his kingdom in Lanka.
7) Rama is broken-hearted when he returns to the empty hut and cannot find Sita. A band of monkeys offer to help him find Sita.
Ravana has carried Sita to his palace in Lanka, but he cannot force her to be his wife so he puts her in a grove and alternately sweet-talks her and threatens her in an attempt to get her to agree to marry him. Sita will not even look at him but thinks only of her beloved Rama. Hanuman, the general of the monkey band can fly since his father is the wind, and Hanuman flies to Lanka and, finding Sita in the grove, comforts her and tells her Rama will soon come and save her.
8) Ravana's men capture Hanuman, and Ravana orders them to wrap Hanuman's tail in cloth and to set it on fire. With his tail burning, Hanuman hops from house-top to house-top, setting Lanka afire. He then flies back to Rama to tell him where Sita is.
9) Rama, Lakshman and the monkey army build a causeway from the tip of India to Lanka and cross over to Lanka. A might battle ensues. Rama kills several of Ravana's brothers and then
Rama confronts ten-headed Ravana. (Ravana is known for his wisdom as well as for his weakness for women which may explain why he is pictured as very brainy.) Rama finally kills Ravana.
10). Rama frees Sita. After Sita proves here purity, they return to Ayodhya and Rama becomes king. His rule, Ram-rajya, is an ideal time when everyone does his or her dharma and "fathers never have to light the funeral pyres for their sons

رامايانا
(دڤناگري: Rāmāyaṇa, रामायण) هي ملحمة شعرية هندية قديمة بالسنسكريتية تـُنسب إلى الشاعر ڤالميكي. وتعتبر من التراث الهندي وتكاد تكون نصا مقدسا وهي ملحمة لا يزيد طولها على ألف صفحة قوام الصفحة منها ثمانية وأربعون سطراً ؛ وعلى الرغم من أنها كذلك أخذت تزداد بالإضافات من القرن الثالث قبل الميلاد إلى القرن الثاني بعد الميلاد ، فإن تلك الإضافات فيها أقل عدداً مما في الماهابهاراتا ، ولا تشوه الموضوع الأصلي كثيراً ؛ ويعزو الرواة هذه القصيدة إلى رجل يسمى "فالميكي" ، وهو كنظيره المؤلف المزعوم للملحمة الأخرى الأكبر منها ، يظهر في الحكاية شخصية من شخصياتها ولكن الأرجح أن القصيدة من إنشاء عدد كبير من المنشدين العابرين ، أمثال أولئك الذين لا يزالون ينشدون هاتين الملحمتين ، وقد يظلون يتابعون إنشادهما تسعين ليلة متعاقبة ، على مستمعين مأخوذين بما فيها من سحر. وكما أن "المهابهارتا" تشبه "الإلياذة" في كونها قصة حرب عظيمة أنشبتها الآلهة والناس ، وكان بعض أسبابها استلاب أمة لامرأة جميلة من أمة أخرى ؛ فكذلك تشبه "رامايانا" "الأوديسية" وتقصّ عما لاقاه أحد الأبطال من صعاب وأسفار ، وعن انتظار زوجته صابرة حتى يعود إليها فيلتئم شملها من جديد ، وترى في فاتحة الملحمة صورة لعصر ذهبي ، كان فيه "دازا- راذا" يحكم مملكته "كوسالا" (وهي ما يسمى الآن أودا) من عاصمته "أيوذيا":
مزداناً بما تزدان به الملوك من كرامة وبسالة، وزاخراً بترانيم الفيدا المقدسة
أخذ (دازا- راذا) يحكم ملكه في أيام الماضي السعيد...
إذ عاش الشعب التقيُّ مسالماً، كثير المال رفيع المقام
لا يأكل الحسد قلوبهم ؛ ولا يعرفون الكذب فيما ينطقون ؛
فالآباء بأسْراتهم السعيدة يملكون ما لديهم من ماشية وغلة وذهب
ولم يكن للفقر المدقع والمجاعة في (أيوديا) مقام.

mā niṣāda pratiṣṭhāṁ tvamagamaḥ śāśvatīḥ samāḥ
yat krau&ntilde;camithunādekam avadhīḥ kāmamohitam[7]
You will find no rest for the long years of Eternity
For you killed a bird in love and unsuspecting[8]

About Valmiki
Maharishi (the great sage) claims the distinction of being the author of the holy epic 'Ramayana', consisting of 24,000 verses. He is also believed to be the author of Yoga Vasistha, a text that elaborates on a range of philosophical issues. There are different versions regarding the time period and life of Valmiki. The Valmiki Ramayana is believed to be dated variously from the period 500 BC to 100BC. But at the same time Valmiki is also said to be the contemporary of Lord Rama. Sita took refuge in her Ashram where Lava and Kusa were born. Against this backdrop, the period of Valmiki is likely to date back to thousand of years.

There is much controversy regarding the life of Maharishi Valmiki. There is a age old belief th;at before turning into a sage Valmiki was a highway robber called Ratnakara. This widely accepted story has been explained in detail below. But a judgement given by Justice Rajive Bhalla of the Punjab and Haryana High Court in the year 2010 could change an age-old belief about Maharsihi Valmiki. Justice Bhalla quoted the research done by the head of the Maharishi Valmiki Chair of the Punjabi University, Patiala, Manjula Sehdev, and said that,"actual facts appear to be lost in the mists of antiquity." The judge stated the salient features of the research, saying that "from Vedic literature up to 9th century AD, there is no reference as such that Maharishi Valmiki led a life of a dacoit or highwayman." It was also stated that in his own work 'Ramayana', Valmiki is called Bhagwan, Muni, Rishi and Maharishi and no reference of his highwaymanship is available there.

Early Life
Maharishi Valmiki was born as Ratnakara to sage Prachetasa. At a very young age, Ratnakara went into the forest and got lost. A hunter, who was passing by, saw Ratnakara and took him under his own care. Under the love and care of his foster parents, Ratnakara forgot his original parents. Under his father's guidance, Ratnakara turned out to be an excellent hunter. As he approached marriageable age, Ratnakara was married to a beautiful girl from hunter's family.

Turning into a Robber
As his family grew larger, Ratnakara found it next to impossible to feed them. As a result, he took to robbery and began looting people passing from one village to another.

Meeting with Narada and Transformation
One day, the great sage Narada, while passing through the jungle, was attacked by Ratnakara. As Narada played his Veena and sang praises of the Lord, he saw a transformation coming over Ratnakara. Then, he asked Ratnakara whether the family, for whom he was robbing others, will partake in his sins also. Ratnakara went to ask the same question to his family and on being refused by all his family members, he went back to sage Narada. Narada taught him the sacred name of 'Rama' and asked him to sit in meditation, chanting the name of Rama, till the time Narada came back.

Ratnakara followed the instructions and kept sitting in a meditative posture for years, during which his body got completely covered by an anthill. At last, Narada came to see him and removed all the anthills from his body. Then, he told Ratnakara that his tapasya (meditation) paid off and the God was pleased with him. Ratnakara was bestowed with the honor of a Brahmarshi and given the name of Valmiki, since he was reborn from the Valmika (the ant-hill). Sage Valmiki founded his ashram at the banks of River Ganga.

Receiving Lord Rama
One day, Valmiki had the fortuity of receiving Lord Rama, His wife Sita and brother Lakshman at his ashram. On Valmiki's suggestion, Lord Rama built his hut on Chitrakuta hill, near the ashram.

Writing Ramayana
Narada visited Maharishi Valmiki in his ashram once and there, he narrated the story of Lord Rama. Thereafter he received a vision from Brahma in which the Lord instructed him to write Ramayana in slokas, which the sage readily followed.

Birth Name
Ratnakara
Nickname
Adikavi
Mini Biography
Valmiki was the composer of the first Sanskrit poem (the Adikavya) known the world over as the epic Ramayana (Story of Lord Rama), hence he is called the Adikavi or First Poet - the Poet of Poets of India. He was born along the banks of the Ganges in ancient India to a sage by the name of Prachetasa. His birth name was Ratnakara. He apparently got lost in the jungles as a child and was found by a hunter who raised him as his own son. When he grew up he became a hunter like his foster father but also took to being a bandit to supplement his livelihood. Once it so happened he met the Maharishi Narada and tried to rob him. However Narada convinced him of the evil of his ways and converted him into a 'Brahmarishi' or religious scholar. He narrated the story of Rama (Ramayana) to him and asked him to write it down for posterity. Ratnakara did penance for many years and an ant-hill grew around him. Hence his new name 'Valmika' which in Sanskrit means an ant-hill. He came out of the anthill and penned the great epic sometime between the 4th and the 2nd century BC. "As long as there are rivers and mountains in the world, people will read the Ramayana

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يُعرف فالميكي (Valmiki) (باللغة السنسكريتية:)،वाल्मीकि, vālmīki) (الذي عاش خلال عصر اللورد راما)[1] بالشاعر المُنذر في الأدب السنسكريتي. وهو مؤلف الملحة الشعرية رامايانا (Ramayana)، على أساس التوزيع في نص الملحمة نفسها.[2] تم تكريمه بإعطائه لقب آدي كافي، التي تعني الشاعر الأول، وذلك لأنه صاغ أول شلوكا (śloka) آي إي. أول بيت شعري ملحمي الذي يُعد حجر الأساس في تحديد شكل الشعر السنسكريتي.
مع بداية القرن الأول الميلادي، اشتهر فالميكي وذاع صيته كمؤسس الشعر السنسكريتي الكلاسيكي. كتب الشاعر والفليسوف الهندي آشفاجوشا (Ashvagosha) قصائده على طريقة اسلوب القصيدة الملحمية بودهاكاريتا: (Buddhacarita)

تتألف Rāmāyaṇa ملحمة فالميكي الشعرية رامايانا، من أربعة وعشرين ألف بيت مزدوج[10]، في سبعة فصول (يزعم البعض بأنهم ستة فصول فقط دون الخاتمة) (kāṇḍas). تصف الملحمة قصة البطل الأسطوري راما (Rama) من مدينةأيوديا (Ayodhya)، واختطاف زوجته سيتا (Sita) من قبل المُنتمي لقبيلة (راكشا) Rākshasa حاكم مملكة لانكا (Lanka) الشيطان رافَنا (Ravana). يتراوح تاريخ كتابة فالميكي للملحمة الشعرية رامايانا بين 500 عام إلى 100 عام قبل الميلاد وهو تقريبًا نفس الوقت الذي كُتبت فيه الصيغ الأولى من الملحمة الشعرية مهابهاراتا (Mahabhārata)‏.[11] كما أن شأنها شأن العديد من القصائد الملحمية التقليدية، حيث تكونت عبر قرون طويلة وعمليات من المراجعة والإضافة فأصبح من المستحيل معرفة تاريخ كتاباتها بالتحديد.
على الرغم مما سبق ذكره، عندما تُذكر ملحمة راما يُذكر فالميكي باعتباره مؤلفها الرئيسي لأنها صيغت صياغة نهائية على يده. التقى راما فالميكي عندما كان منفيًا ودار حوار بينهما. عاشت سيتا تحت رعاية الناسك فالميكي، وفي صومعته رزقت بابنين توأمين؛ كوشا (Kusa) ولافا (Lava). تتلمذ كلٍ من كوشا ولافا على يد فالميكي حيث قص عليهم ملحمة رامايانا ثم لاحقًا روا التوأمان القصيدة أثناء إقامة طقس التضحية بحصان، لتسلية الحضور ومِن ثَمّ دعاهم الحاكم راما إلى قصره الملكي. ومرة ثانية روى الطفلين قصة راما هناك، وأكد راما أن كل ما تغنى به هذان الطفلان صحيحًا.

ومن هنا صيغت أول شلوكا في تاريخ الأدب السنسكريتي وكان تكوينها تلقائيًا عفويًا منبثقًا من جوف حزنه وغضبه. لاحقًا أكمل فالميكي باقي الملحمة، مع حصوله على مباركة براهما (Brahma)، وصاغها على نفس وزن الأبيات السابقة التى تم اعتبارها كأول شلوكا. ومن ثم تم اعتبار هذه الشلوكا "أول شلوكا" śloka في الأدب الهندوسي (Hindu). وفالميكي أول شاعر، أو آدى كافي (Adi Kavi)، وملحمة رامايانا، أول قافية (kavya).
أول من تعلم ملحمة رامايانا على يد فالميكي هما طفلي راما (Rama) كوشا ولافا.

قررت الحكومة الهندية بأن يكون يوم 29 أكتوبر من كل عام عطلة رسمية في جميع أنحاء البلاد.

مجهول الطفولة.

The Recognition of Sakuntala is a play written in Sanskrit by the Indian poet Kalidasa. It tells the story of the Indian King, Dushyanta, and his marriage to the maiden Sakuntala. Here's a brief rundown.
According to the myth, Sakuntala is abandoned by her parents at birth and grows up in a small hermitage (sort of like a monastery) belonging to the sage Kanva. One day, while Kanva is away from the hermitage, King Dushyanta stumbles upon Sakuntala while hunting. Dushyanta falls immediately in love. He approaches Sakuntala, courts her, and then marries her. (Why waste time?)
The two are crazy happy and in love with each other, but Dushyanta has to return to the capital to fulfill his duty as king. He gives Sakuntala a ring to use as proof of their marriage when she comes to the palace to join him.
Dushyanta returns to the palace at Hastinapura. Meanwhile, an old sage stops at the hermitage where Sakuntala lives. Sakuntala is so caught up in thoughts of her new husband that she fails to offer the old man food. In retaliation, the old man curses her. (Stinky old men and their curses.) The man claims that he has caused Sakuntala's husband to forget her: the only way Dushyanta can be made to remember is if Sakuntala offers some token as proof.
Confident that she already has such a token—the ring—Sakuntala sets off for the palace. Along the way she is forced to cross a wide river. And wouldn't you know it, when she dips her hand into the water she loses the ring. She freaks out, but she presses on anyway. But true to the old man's word, Dushyanta no longer recognizes her. Sakuntala is thrown out of the palace, and her adopted father Kanva abandons her.
Sometime later a fisherman discovers the king's ring in the belly of a fish. The fisherman returns the ring to the palace, and when Dushyanta sees it, his memory of Sakuntala returns. Too late. Sakuntala is gone from the palace, and Dushyanta is engaged in war.
After Dushyanta defeats his enemies, he is offered a tour of the Hindu heavens that lasts several years. Only after his return to earth is he given the chance to reunite with Sakuntala who becomes his queen and bears him a son.
Obviously this isn't an exact copy of the Echo and Narcissus story—especially with the whole happy ending thing—but there some major similarities. The lovers meet in the forest, just like Echo and Narcissus. Dushyanta is hunting in the evening, just like Narcissus. Sure, they fall in love (not like Echo and Narcissus—at all). But after the curse is introduced Dushyanta rejects Sakuntala, just as Narcissus rejected Echo. Love and rejection go hand in hand in both of these myths. Parallel? Maybe not. Reminiscent? For sure.

Abhij&ntilde;ānashākuntala or Abhij&ntilde;ānaśākuntalam (Devanagari: अभिज्ञान शाकुन्तलम्), is a well-known Sanskrit play by Kālidāsa. It is considered to be the best of Kalidasa's works. Its date is uncertain, but Kalidasa is often placed in the period between the 1st century BCE and 4th century CE.
The Sanskrit title means "pertaining to token-recognized-Śakuntalā", so a literal translation could be Of Śakuntalā who is recognized by a token. The title is sometimes translated as The Recognition of Śakuntalā or The Sign of Śakuntalā.

Although Kalidasa makes some minor changes to the plot, the play elaborates upon an episode mentioned in the Mahabharata. The protagonist is Shakuntala, daughter of the sage Vishwamitra and the apsaraMenaka. Abandoned at birth by her parents, Shakuntala is reared in the secluded, sylvan hermitage of the sage Kanva, and grows up a comely but innocent maiden.
While Kanva and the other elders of the hermitage are away on a pilgrimage, Dushyanta, king of Hastinapura, comes hunting in the forest and chances upon the hermitage. He is captivated by Shakuntala, courts her in royal style, and marries her. He then has to leave to take care of affairs in the capital. She is given a ring by the king, to be presented to him when she appears in his court. She can then claim her place as queen.
The anger-prone sage Durvasa arrives when Shakuntala is lost in her fantasies, so that when she fails to attend to him, he curses her by bewitching Dushyanta into forgetting her existence. The only cure is for Shakuntala to show him the signet ring that he gave her.
She later travels to meet him, and has to cross a river. The ring is lost when it slips off her hand when she dips her hand in the water playfully. On arrival the king refuses to acknowledge her. Shakuntala is abandoned by her companions, who return to the hermitage.
Fortunately, the ring is discovered by a fisherman in the belly of a fish, and Dushyanta realises his mistake - too late. The newly wise Dushyanta defeats an army of Asuras, and is rewarded by Indra with a journey through the Hindu heaven. Returned to Earth years later, Dushyanta finds Shakuntala and their son by chance, and recognizes them.

Kālidāsa (Devanāgarī: कालिदास "servant of Kali") was a renowned Classical Sanskrit writer, widely regarded as the greatest poet and dramatist in the Sanskrit language. His floruit cannot be dated with precision, but most likely falls within the 5th century CE.[1]
His plays and poetry are primarily based on the Hindu Puranas and Hindu philosophy.

Location</SPAN>

Scholars have speculated that Kālidāsa may have lived either near the Himalayas, in the vicinity of Ujjain, or in Kalinga. The three speculations are based respectively on Kālidāsa's detailed description of the Himalayas in his Kumārasambhava, the display of his love for Ujjain in Meghadūta, and his highly eulogistic descriptions of Kalingan emperor Hemāngada in Raghuvaṃśa (sixth sarga).

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Kalidasa (Devanāgarī: कालिदास "servant of Kali") was a renowned Classical Sanskrit writer, widely regarded as the greatest poet and dramatist in the Sanskrit language. His floruit cannot be dated with precision, but most likely falls within 4th Century AD.



His plays and poetry are primarily based on Hindu Puranas and philosophy.



Life



Nothing apart from his works is known with certainty about the life of Kālidāsa, such as his period or where he lived. Little is known about Kālidāsa's life. According to legend, he was known for his beauty, which brought him to the attention of Princess Vidyottama and she married him. However, as legend has it, Kālidāsa had grown up without much education, and the princess was ashamed of his ignorance and coarseness. A devoted worshipper of Kali (by other accounts of Saraswati), Kālidāsa is said to have called upon his goddess for help when he was going to commit suicide in a well after he was humiliated by his wife, and was rewarded with a sudden and extraordinary gift of wit. He is then said to have become the most brilliant of the "nine gems" at the court of the king Vikramaditya of Ujjain. Legend also has it that he was murdered by a courtesan in Sri Lanka during the reign of Kumaradasa.



Date



A terminus ante quem is given by the Aihole Prashasti of 634 AD, which has a reference to his skills; and a terminus post quem can be presumed from his play Mālavikāgnimitra in as much as the hero, King Agnimitra of the Shunga dynasty, assumed the throne of Magadha in 152 BC. The linguistic features of the Prakrit dialects used by some of the minor characters in his plays have been adduced to suggest that he could not have lived before the 3rd century AD. There has been great ambiguity regarding the exact date of Kālidāsa but in 1986, Sanskrit scholar Ramchandra Tiwari of Bhopal claims to have conducted a thorough research on Kalidasa and after analysing 627 archaeological evidences which included 104 sculptures, 30 pictures and 493 scriptural words determined that Kalidasa lived in the period 370-450AD.



In his works, Kālidāsa did not mention any king as his patron, or any dynasty other than the Shunga dynasty, but several historians have credited the traditional account of Kālidāsa as one of the "nine gems" at the court of a king named Vikramāditya. There were, however, several kings in ancient India by that name. One among them was the emperor Vikramaditya of Ujjain who founded the Vikrama Samvat following his victory over the Sakas in 56 BCE. Scholars have noted other possible associations with the Gupta dynasty, which would put his date in the range of 300-470 AD:



* His play about a couple in Vedic Puranas, Pururavas and Urvashi, being titled Vikramorvashīya, with "Vikram" for "Pururavas", could be an indirect tribute to a patron possibly named Vikramāditya.



* Kumār Gupta I was the son of Chandragupta II Vikramāditya. The title of Kālidāsa's epic poem, Kumārasambhava, about the begetting of Kartikeya, the god of war who was the son of Siva and Pārvati, could be an indirect tribute to either of these royal patrons.



* The mention of Huns in his epic poem, Raghuvaṃśa, could be a veiled reference to the victory over them in 455 of Kumāragupta's son and successor, Skandagupta. Alternatively, the campaign of Raghu in this poem may have been modeled on the celebrated campaigns of Chandragupta II Vikramāditya's father, Samudragupta.



M R Kale in the introduction of his translation of Kumarasambhava and Saradaranjan Ray in his introduction to the translation of Abhijnana Sakunthalam places the date of Kalidasa to be about 56 BC or earlier. The main evidence comes from the works of philosopher-poet Aśvaghoṣa whose date is in 1st century AD. Aśvaghoṣa has used many passages similar to that of Kalidasa. Since Kalidasa was an original poet, it is extremely unlikely that he borrowed from Asvaghosha being a philosopher and mostly considered an artificial poet, and with a much more chance would have done so. Kale also adds that some aspects of language used by Asvaghosa seem to be later and the similarities in the styles suggest that their dates are not widely separated. Kale also gives much additional evidence that can be found internally from Kalidasa's works to substantiate his claims. These claims, together with the facts of king Vikrama, Kalidasa's love and knowledge of the city of Ujjain, suggests that Kalidasa was probably with Vikramaditya of 1st century BCE.



Location



Scholars have speculated that Kālidāsa may have lived either near the Himalayas or in the vicinity of Ujjain or in Kalinga. The three speculations are based respectively on Kālidāsa's detailed description of the Himalayas in his Kumārasambhava, the display of his love for Ujjain in Meghadūta and his highly eulogistic quotes for Kalingan emperor Hemāngada in Raghuvaṃśa (sixth sarga).



Works



Kālidāsa wrote three plays. Among them, Abhij&ntilde;ānaśākuntalam ("Of Shakuntala recognised by a token") is generally regarded as a masterpiece. It was among the first Sanskrit works to be translated into English, and has since been translated into many languages.



Mālavikāgnimitram ("Mālavikā and Agnimitra") tells the story of King Agnimitra, who falls in love with the picture of an exiled servant girl named Mālavikā. When the queen discovers her husband's passion for this girl, she becomes infuriated and has Mālavikā imprisoned, but as fate would have it, Mālavikā is in fact a true-born princess, thus legitimizing the affair.



Abhij&ntilde;ānaśākuntalam ("Of Shakuntala recognised by a token") tells the story of King Dushyanta who, while on a hunting trip, meets Shakuntalā, the adopted daughter of a sage, and marries her. A mishap befalls them when he is summoned back to court: Shakuntala, pregnant with their child, inadvertently offends a visiting sage and incurs a curse, by which Dushyanta will forget her completely until he sees the ring he has left with her. On her trip to Dushyanta's court in an advanced state of pregnancy, she loses the ring, and has to come away unrecognized. The ring is found by a fisherman who recognizes the royal seal and returns it to Dushyanta, who regains his memory of Shakuntala and sets out to find her. After more travails, they are finally reunited.



Vikramōrvaśīyam ("Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi") tells the story of mortal King Pururavas and celestial nymph Urvashi who fall in love. As an immortal, she has to return to the heavens, where an unfortunate accident causes her to be sent back to the earth as a mortal with the curse that she will die (and thus return to heaven) the moment her lover lays his eyes on the child which she will bear him. After a series of mishaps, including Urvashi's temporary transformation into a vine, the curse is lifted, and the lovers are allowed to remain together on the earth.



Kālidāsa is the author of two epic poems, Raghuvaṃśa ("Dynasty of Raghu") and Kumārasambhava ("Birth of Kumāra"). Among his lyric poems are Meghadūta ("Cloud Messenger") and Ṛtusaṃhāra ("The Exposition on the Seasons").



* Raghuvaṃśa is an epic poem about the kings of the Raghu dynasty.


* Kumārasambhava is an epic poem which narrates the birth of Kartikeya, Parvati being sent by her father to serve the meditating Siva, Manmadha attempting to create love in Siva for Parvati, Siva destroying Manmadha in his fury, Parvati's penance for Siva, Siva agreeing to marry Parvati, Siva and Parvati living in marital bliss, etc.


* Ṛtusaṃhāra describes the six seasons by narrating the experiences of two lovers in each of the seasons.


* Meghadūta or Meghasāndesa is the story of a Yaksha trying to send a message to his lover through a cloud. Kalidasa set this poem to the 'mandākrānta' meter known for its lyrical sweetness. It is one of Kalidasa's most popular poems and numerous commentaries on the work have been written.



Style



Kālidāsa's poetry is celebrated for its beautiful imagery and use of similes. The following are some specimen verses from his works.

The plays and poems of Kālidāsa (कालिदासः), "Servant of Kālī", are classics of Indian and world literature. His life is not well documented, but historians date his work around fifteen hundred years ago, and textual evidence suggests that he lived in the kingdom of Ujjayinī (Ujjain) in central India.

Kālidāsa is especially remembered for his play Abhij&ntilde;āna Śākuntala, which is a love story based on material from the Mahābhārata. Its central characters are Śakuntala, a young woman raised in a forest hermitage, and the king Duṣyanta, who meets her while he is hunting deer.

Kālidāsa also wrote Kumārasaṃbhava, about the courtship of Śiva and Pārvatī; Raghuvaṃśa, about Rāma and his kindred; and Meghadūta, in which a lonely male spirit (yakṣa) asks a raincloud to journey across India, bearing a message to his lady.

As I suggested in Ferment several years ago, 1 Kālidāsa’s name says something about the way Kālī has been perceived in India. If a great creative writer declares himself to be Kālī’s servant, is it not natural to think of Kālī as a goddess of creative writers?

A twentieth century Indian scholar, Govinda Gopal Mukherjee, writes of "...the name of the great poet Kālidāsa, which clearly indicates that during his time Kālī must have assumed an honoured position in the Hindu pantheon, for otherwise he could not have been so named." 2 Thomas B. Coburn, author of a study of the Devī Māhātmya, is impressed by the fact that the author of the Kumārasaṃbhava "the peerless Kālidāsa, should call himself 'the slave of Kālī.' " 3 (The Devī Māhātmya is a Goddess-oriented work which modern scholars think was written around the time of Kālidāsa.)

A note of caution is sounded in a letter I received from Geoffrey Samuel of the University of Newcastle (Australia):

What does Kālidāsa himself tell us about his understanding of his name? One verse in Kumārasaṃbhava mentions a Kālī garlanded with skulls, whose appearance reminds the poet of a rain cloud with cranes flying in front of it. This Kālī is pictured as distinct from Pārvatī. She walks at the back of Śiva’s wedding procession, but the lightning of her radiance flashes far in front of her.5 Can we conclude from this verse, as David Kinsley does, that Kālī "was still quite a minor deity" at the time of Kālidāsa? 6

A fuller picture emerges when we remember that the name Kālī consists of two elements: the noun stem kāl (काल्) and the suffix ī (ई). The first of these has a double meaning: "blue-black"; or "time, destiny, death". The second denotes feminine gender.

Does Kālidāsa recognize ī (ई), the feminine principle, as an integral part of the divine? Consider the first verse of Raghuvaṃśa, which invokes Pārvatī and Parameśvara as the jagataḥ pitarau, Mother and Father of the world. They are said to be inseparably united like the word and its meaning, a unity the poet seeks to realize in his work. 7

What about kāl (काल्)? In Meghadūta we find a series of verses about the temple of Mahākāla in Ujjayinī. The name Mahākāla consists of mahā (महा) "great", kāl, (काल्) and the masculine suffix a (अ). The god worshipped in the temple is introduced as the master of the three worlds. He has a blue throat and a spear, implying that he is Śiva (though that name is not used). There is also a feminine power in the temple, named in one verse as Caṇḍī, and in another as Bhavānī. Fragrant gardens surround the temple. At sunset there is drumming, and courtesans (veśyā-s) dance. The master of the three worlds is a dancer too. He likes to wear an elephant’s hide wet with blood, but other red things also please him: hibiscus flowers, a cloud at twilight... 8

The sober lexicographer V.S.Apte describes the verses about Mahākāla's temple as "very beautiful". 9

Association between the words or names Kālī (feminine) and Kāla (masculine) is found in the Mahābhārata 10 (several centuries before Kālidāsa) and also in the Devī Māhātmya 11 (which is roughly contemporary with him). In the Devī Māhātmya there is the idea of a single world-pervading Goddess, who can also appear as multiple goddesses.

Perhaps the most likely reasons that the poet and playwright signed himself "Kālidāsa" are...

Le Rouge et le Noir (French pronunciation: ​[lə.ʁuʒ.e.lə.nwaʁ] ; French for The Red and the Black), 1830, by Stendhal, is a historical psychological novel in two volumes,[1] chronicling a provincial young man’s attempts to rise socially beyond his modest upbringing with a combination of talent and hard work, deception and hypocrisy — yet who ultimately allows his passions to betray him.
The novel’s composite full title, Le Rouge et le Noir, Chronique du XIXe siècle (The Red and the Black: A Chronicle of the 19th Century),[2] indicates its two-fold literary purpose, a psychological portrait of the romantic protagonist, Julien Sorel, and an analytic, sociological satire of the French social order under the Bourbon Restoration (1814–30). In English, Le Rouge et le Noir is variously translated as Red and Black, Scarlet and Black, and The Red and the Black, without the sub-title.[3]

الاحمر والاسود

نبذة النيل والفرات:
إن سعادة مرتقبة تنتظر قارئ هذا الكتاب. فقراءة ستاندال، أو إعادة قراءته، وقراءة "الحمر والأسود" أو إعادة قراءته، لمن هو مهيأ كفاية وناضح كفاية، على بعض براءة (بمعرفة تكفي لمجاراة الكاتب، ونضارة كافية لمجاراة نضارته)، عملية وعد بسويعات قراءة ليست تمضية وقت، بل سويعات يضيفها العبقري على ساعات حياتنا.
ولتحذر أن تتسلل منك هذه السعادة، كما كاد الكاتب يهرب من ستاندال نفسه قبل قرنين. فثمة أدباء، عصرئذ، كما ميريميه وبلزاك وغوته، أدركوا أن "الأحمر والأسود" رواية ناجحة. لكن معظم الباقين حاولوا طمسها.
أما ستاندال مؤلفها فأعلن أنها رواية تاريخية، من حين أنها حملت طابعاً سياسياً وذلك لما ترويه وتقدمه للقارئ من معلومات سياسية وتاريخية واجتماعية حملت سمات تلك الفترة من التاريخ وبالعودة لمضمون هذه القصة تجد أنها نروي قصة رجل من الشعب يبدد لا طاعته تحت مظاهر خبيثة من الطاعة، وتعذب حتى انتهى إلى التحدي مستحقاً الموت وساعياً إليه ، بتحديه ما يسميه الأغنياء المجتمع.

ستندال
(1783-1842)روائي فرنسي. اسمه الحقيقي ماري هنري بيل Marie Henri Beyle يُعتبر أحد أبرز وجوه الأدب الفرنسي في القرن التاسع عشر. اتسمت آثاره، الرومانتيكية الطابع، بسخرية بارعة، وبنفاذ نادر إلى أعماق النفس البشرية، وبنزوع واضح إلى النقد الاجتماعي. أشهر رواياته «الأحمر والأسود» le Rouge et le noir (عام 1830)
ويعتبر علامة بارزة في الأدب الفرنسي في القرن التاسع عشر، قرن الثورة الصناعية والثقافية معاً، خاصة في روايتيه الشهيرتين "الأحمر والأسود" و "دير بارم" وتأتي أهمية أدب ستندال في التحليل النفسي الواقعي للشخصيات، وكانت علاقته بالثقافة الإيطالية مصدراً لإغناء تجربته، كما كان اهتمامه بالموسيقى مصدراً آخر لهذه التجربة، حيث كتب عن أهم العازفين في عصره: سيماروزا، موزار، روسيني، وربما كان هذا الاهتمام المشترك بالموسيقى بين ستندال والمؤلف على الشوك هو العنصر الأول في إنجاز هذا الكتاب.

Marie-Henri Beyle (23 January 1783 – 23 March 1842), better known by his pen name Stendhal, was a 19th-century French writer. Known for his acute analysis of his characters' psychology, he is considered one of the earliest and foremost practitioners of realism in his two novels Le Rouge et le Noir (The Red and the Black, 1830) and La Chartreuse de Parme (The Charterhouse of Parma, 1839).[citation needed]
Life</SPAN>

Born in Grenoble, Isère, he was an unhappy child, disliking his "unimaginative" father and mourning his mother, with whom he was passionately in love, and who died when he was seven.[citation needed] He spent "the happiest years of his life" at the Beyle country house in Claix near Grenoble.[citation needed] His closest friend was his younger sister, Pauline, with whom he maintained a steady correspondence throughout the first decade of the 19th century.[citation needed]
The military and theatrical worlds of the First French Empire were a revelation to Beyle.[citation needed] He was named an auditor with the Conseil d'&Eacute;tat on 3 August 1810, and thereafter took part in the French administration and in the Napoleonic wars in Italy.[citation needed] He travelled extensively in Germany and was part of Napoleon's army in the 1812 invasion of Russia.[citation needed]
After the 1814 Treaty of Fontainebleau, he left for Italy, where he settled in Milan.[citation needed] He formed a particular attachment to Italy, where he spent much of the remainder of his career, serving as French consul at Trieste and Civitavecchia.[citation needed] His novel The Charterhouse of Parma, written in 52 days, is set in Italy, which he considered a more sincere and passionate country than Restoration France.[citation needed] An aside in that novel, referring to a character who contemplates suicide after being jilted, speaks about his attitude towards his home country: "To make this course of action clear to my French readers, I must explain that in Italy, a country very far away from us, people are still driven to despair by love."
Beyle used the pseudonym "Stendhal" (and over 100 others), and scholars in general believe he borrowed this nom de plume from the German city of Stendal in homage to Johann Joachim Winckelmann.[citation needed]
Stendhal was a dandy and wit about town in Paris, as well as an inveterate womaniser who was obsessed with his sexual conquests.[citation needed] His genuine empathy towards women is evident in his books; Simone de Beauvoir spoke highly of him in The Second Sex. One of his early works is On Love, a rational analysis of romantic passion that was based on his unrequited love for Mathilde, Countess Dembowska, whom he met while living at Milan.[citation needed] This fusion of, and tension between, clear-headed analysis and romantic feeling is typical of Stendhal's great novels; he could be considered a Romantic realist.
Stendhal suffered miserable physical disabilities in his final years as he continued to produce some of his most famous work.[citation needed] As he noted in his journal, he was taking iodide of potassium and quicksilver to treat his syphilis, resulting in swollen armpits, difficulty swallowing, pains in his shrunken testicles, sleeplessness, giddiness, roaring in the ears, racing pulse and "tremors so bad he could scarcely hold a fork or a pen."[citation needed] Indeed, he dictated Charterhouse in this pitiable state.[citation needed] Modern medicine has shown that his health problems were more attributable to his treatment than to his syphilis.[citation needed]
Stendhal died on 22 March 1842, a few hours after collapsing with a seizure on the streets of Paris. He is interred in the Cimetière de Montmartre.[citation needed]
Works</SPAN>

Contemporary readers did not fully appreciate Stendhal's realistic style during the Romantic period in which he lived; he was not fully appreciated until the beginning of the 20th century.[citation needed] He dedicated his writing to "the Happy Few." This is often interpreted as a dedication to the few who could understand his writing,[citation needed] or as a sardonic reference to the happy few who are born into prosperity (the latter interpretation is supported by the likely source of the quotation, Canto 11 of Byron's Don Juan, a frequent reference in the novel,[citation needed] which refers to "the thousand happy few" who enjoy high society), or as a reference to those who lived without fear or hatred. It may also refer, given Stendhal's experience of the Napoleonic wars,[citation needed] to the "we few, we happy few, we band of brothers" line of Shakespeare's Henry V. He did have influence as a literary critic.[citation needed] In Racine and Shakespeare he championed the Romantic aesthetic, comparing the rules and strictures of Racine's classicism unfavorably to the freer verse and settings of Shakespeare, and supporting the writing of plays in prose.[citation needed] The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche acknowledged his personal debt to the French writer in the Twilight of the Idols (when referring to Dostoevsky as the only psychologist from whom he had something to learn), stating that encountering him (Dostoevsky) was "the most beautiful accident of my life, more so than even my discovery of Stendhal".[citation needed]
Today, Stendhal's works attract attention for their irony and psychological and historical dimensions.[citation needed] Stendhal was an avid fan of music, particularly the works of the composers Cimarosa, Mozart and Rossini.[citation needed] He wrote a biography of Rossini, Vie de Rossini (1824), now more valued for its wide-ranging musical criticism than for its historical content.[citation needed]
In his works, Stendhal "plagiarized", reprised, appropriated, excerpts from Giuseppe Carpani, Théophile Frédéric Winckler, Sismondi and others.[1][2][3][4]
Novels</SPAN>

عاش طفولة بائسة. يتيم الام في سن السابعة.

In Search of Lost Time or Remembrance of Things Past (French: &Agrave; la recherche du temps perdu) is a novel in seven volumes by Marcel Proust. His most prominent work, it is known both for its length and its theme of involuntary memory, the most famous example being the "episode of the madeleine." It gained fame in English in translations by C. K. Scott Moncrieff and Terence Kilmartin as Remembrance of Things Past, but the title In Search of Lost Time, a literal rendering of the French, has gained usage since D. J. Enright adopted it for his revised translation published in 1992.
The novel began to take shape in 1909. Proust continued to work on it until his final illness in the autumn of 1922 forced him to break off. Proust established the structure early on, but even after volumes were initially finished he kept adding new material, and edited one volume after another for publication. The last three of the seven volumes contain oversights and fragmentary or unpolished passages as they existed in draft form at the death of the author; the publication of these parts was overseen by his brother Robert.
The work was published in France between 1913 and 1927. Proust paid for the publication of the first volume (by the Grasset publishing house) after it had been turned down by leading editors who had been offered the manuscript in longhand. Many of its ideas, motifs and scenes appear in adumbrated form in Proust's unfinished novel, Jean Santeuil (1896–99), though the perspective and treatment there are different, and in his unfinished hybrid of philosophical essay and story, Contre Sainte-Beuve (1908–09). The novel had great influence on twentieth-century literature; some writers have sought to emulate it, others to parody it.

The novel recounts the experiences of the Narrator while growing up, participating in society, falling in love, and learning about art.

Valentin Louis Georges Eugène Marcel Proust (French pronunciation: ​[maʁsɛl pʁust]; 10 July 1871 – 18 November 1922) was a French novelist, critic, and essayist best known for his monumental &Agrave; la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time; earlier translated as Remembrance of Things Past). It was published in seven parts between 1913 and 1927.

Proust was born in Auteuil (the southern sector of Paris' then-rustic 16th arrondissement) at the home of his great-uncle, two months after the Treaty of Frankfurt formally ended the Franco-Prussian War.
His birth took place during the violence that surrounded the suppression of the Paris Commune, and his childhood corresponded with the consolidation of the French Third Republic. Much of In Search of Lost Time concerns the vast changes, most particularly the decline of the aristocracy and the rise of the middle classes that occurred in France during the Third Republic and the fin de siècle.
Proust's father, Achille Adrien Proust, was a prominent pathologist and epidemiologist, responsible for studying and attempting to remedy the causes and movements of cholera through Europe and Asia; he was the author of many articles and books on medicine and hygiene.
Proust's mother, Jeanne Clémence Weil, was the daughter of a rich and cultured Jewish family from Alsace.[2] She was literate and well-read; her letters demonstrate a well-developed sense of humour, and her command of English was sufficient for her to provide necessary assistance to her son's translations of John Ruskin.[3] Proust was raised in his father's Catholic faith.[4] He was baptized (on 5 August 1871, at the church of Saint-Louis d'Antin and later confirmed as a Catholic, but he never formally practiced that faith.
By the age of nine, Proust had his first serious asthma attack, and thereafter he was considered a sickly child.
Proust spent long holidays in the village of Illiers. This village, combined with recollections of his great-uncle's house in Auteuil, became the model for the fictional town of Combray, where some of the most important scenes of In Search of Lost Time take place. (Illiers was renamed Illiers-Combray on the occasion of the Proust centenary celebrations.)
In 1882, at the age of eleven, Proust became a pupil at the Lycée Condorcet, but his education was disrupted because of his illness.
Despite this he excelled in literature, receiving an award in his final year. It was through his classmates that he was able to gain access to some of the salons of the upper bourgeoisie, providing him with copious material for In Search of Lost Time.[5]
Despite his poor health, Proust served a year (1889–90) as an enlisted man in the French army, stationed at Coligny Barracks in Orléans, an experience that provided a lengthy episode in The Guermantes' Way, part three of his novel. As a young man, Proust was a dilettante and a social climber whose aspirations as a writer were hampered by his lack of discipline. His reputation from this period, as a snob and an amateur, contributed to his later troubles with getting Swann's Way, the first part of his large-scale novel, published in 1913. At this time, he attended the salons of Mme Straus, widow of Georges Bizet and mother of Proust's childhood friend Jacques Bizet, and of Mme Arman de Caillavet, one of the models of Madame Verdurin, and mother of his friend Gaston Arman de Caillavet, with whose fiancée (Jeanne Pouquet) he was in love. It is through Mme Arman de Caillavet that he made the acquaintance of Anatole France, her lover.
In an 1892 article published in Le Banquet entitled "L'Irréligion d'&Eacute;tat" and again in a 1904 Le Figaro article entitled "La mort des cathédrales", Proust argued against the separation of Church and State, declaring that socialism posed a greater threat to society than the Church and emphasizing the latter's role in sustaining a cultural and educational tradition.[6]
Proust had a close relationship with his mother. To appease his father, who insisted that he pursue a career, Proust obtained a volunteer position at the Bibliothèque Mazarine in the summer of 1896. After exerting considerable effort, he obtained a sick leave that extended for several years until he was considered to have resigned. He never worked at his job, and he did not move from his parents' apartment until after both were dead.[3]
Proust, who was a closetedhomosexual,[7] was one of the first European novelists to mention homosexuality openly and at length in the parts of &Agrave; la recherche du temps perdu which deal with the Baron de Charlus. Lucien Daudet and Reynaldo Hahn were noted to be his lovers.
His life and family circle changed considerably between 1900 and 1905. In February 1903, Proust's brother Robert married and left the family home. His father died in November of the same year.[8] Finally, and most crushingly, Proust's beloved mother died in September 1905. She left him a considerable inheritance. His health throughout this period continued to deteriorate.
Proust spent the last three years of his life mostly confined to his cork-lined bedroom, sleeping during the day and working at night to complete his novel.[9] He died of pneumonia and a pulmonary abscess in 1922. He was buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris
French novelist, best known for &Agrave; la recherche du temps perdu (Remembrance of Things Past), his autobiographical novel told mostly in a stream-of-consciousness style. The work collected pieces from Proust's childhood, observations of aristocratic life-style, gossip, recollections of the closed world, where the author never found his place. The key scene is when a madeleine cake (a small, rich cookie-like pastry) enables the narrator to experience the past completely as a simultaneous part of his present existence:
Marcel Proust was born in Auteuil, near Paris, the son of an eminent doctor, Adrien Proust, and his wife, Jeanne Weil, who was from a well-to-do Alsatian Jewish family. The village of Auteuil, where Proust spent his holidays as a child, was described in an 1855 guidebook as "out of a comic opera." Later Auteuil and Illiers became the Combray of Remembrance of Things Past. Proust was baptized as Catholic, but he never practiced the religion. From 1882 to 1889 Proust attended the Lycée Condorcet, where he felt isolated and misunderstood. "We were rough with him," recalled one of his classmates. In spite of his severe asthma, from which he had suffered since childhood, Proust did his one year military service at Orléans.
Proust studied law at the famous Sorbonne at the &Eacute;cole des Sciences Politiques. He contributed to Symbolist magazines and frequented the salons of the Faubourg Saint-Germain, the wealthy and aristocratic area of Paris. During the late summer of 1895 he started to write Jean Santeuil, which he later abandoned. In 1896 his first books appeared: Portraits de peintres and Les plaisirs et les jours, with drawings by Madeleine Lemaire. Proust's unpublished texts from this period, Jean Santeuil and Contre Sainte-Beuve, an attack on the biographical criticism of Sainte-Beuve, were discovered in the 1950s.
From 1895 to 1899 Proust worked on an autobiographical novel that remained unfinished. In 1899 he started to translate the English art critic John Ruskin, without knowing much English. His earliest love affairs, which had been heterosexual, changed later into homosexual affairs. Among them was Alfred Agostelli, who was married and was killed in an air accident.
According to some sources, Proust frequented Le Cuziat's male brothel, but although these details have fascinated his biographers, they have shed little light on his on his literary accomplishments. To the age of 35 Proust lived the life of a snob and social climber in the salons. For a short time he worked as a lawyer and was active in the Dreyfuss affair, like &Eacute;mile Zola and other artists and intellectuals.
Throughout his life Proust suffered from asthma. He was looked after by his Jewish mother, to whom the writer was – neurotically – attached.
After the death of his father in 1903 and mother in 1905, Proust withdrew gradually from high-society circles.
Until 1919 Proust lived in a soundproof flat, at the 102 Boulevard Haussmann, where he devoted himself to writing and introspection. When James Joyce met Proust at a midnight supper in the fashionable Majestic Hotel in May 1922, the two great innovative writers did not speak more than a few words with each other. "Of course the situation was impossible," Joyce recalled later. "Proust's day was just beginning. Mine was at an end."
Proust was financially independent and free to start on his great novel, Remembrance of Things Past, which was influenced by the autobiographies of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and François Chateaubriand. From 1910 he spent much time in his bedroom, often sleeping in the day and working at night. "For a long time I used to go to bed early. Sometimes, when I had put out my candle, my eyes would close so quickly that I had not even time to say to myself: "I'm falling asleep. And half an hour later the thought that it was time to go to sleep would awaken me; I would make as if to put away the book which I imagined was still in my hands, and to blow out the light; I had gone on thinking, while I was asleep, about what I had just been reading, but these thoughts had taken a rather peculiar turn; it seemed to me that I myself was the immediate subject of my book: a church, a quartet, the rivalry between François I and Charles V."
In 1912 Proust produced the first volume of his seven-part major work, &Agrave; la Recherche du Temps Perdu (Remembrance of Things Past). The massive story of 3 000 pages occupied the last decade of his life. Its first volume, Du côté de chez Swann (Swann's Way), was printed at Proust's own expense in 1913, after Andre Gide advised the Gallimard publishing house to reject it. Swann's Way gained a modest success. Gide made later an offer to publish the subsequent volumes. Another famous writer, E.M. Forster, had his doubts about the whole work: "The book is chaotic, ill constructed, it has and will have no external shape; and yet it hangs together because it is stitched internally, because it contains rhythm." (from Aspects of the Novel, 1927) The second volume, which was delayed by the WW I, appeared in 1919, but the next parts made Proust finally internationally famous. He was still correcting the typescript on his deathbed, but did not manage to finish the final volumes before his death on November 18, 1922.
Remembrance of Things Past does not have a clear and continuous plot line. The first two sections can be – and often are – read separately. Marcel, the narrator is not Proust but resembles him in many ways. Marcel is initially ignorant – only slowly does he begin to grasp the essence of the hidden reality. Through a series of loves and disillusionments he finds his true vocation in life. At the end he is preparing to write a novel which is like the one just presented to the reader. Marcel's childhood memories start to flow when he tastes a madeleine cake dipped in linden tea such as he was given as a child.
"And as soon as I had recognised the taste of the piece of madeleine soaked in her decoction of lime-blossom which my aunt used to give me (although I did not yet know and must long postpone the discovery of why this memory made me so happy) immediately the old grey house upon the street, where her room was, rose up like a stage set to attach itself to the little pavilion opening on to the garden which had been built out behind it for my parents (the isolated segment which until that moment had been all that I could see); and with the house the town, from morning to night and in all weathers, the Square where I used to be sent before lunch, the streets along which I used to run errands, the country roads we took when it was fine."
Memory takes the central role in the novel and apparently insignificant details prove to be the most important. The first part focuses on Marcel's childhood in Combray. Proust follows the lives of three families, Marcel's own, the aristocratic de Guermantes, and the family of the Jewish Bohemian dilettante Swann. Among the central characters are the faithless cocotte Odette, whom Swann marries, homosexual Baron de Charlus, partly modelled on Count Robert de Montesquiou-Ferensac (1855-1921), an art critic, poet, and essayist, Dutchess, Mme de Villeparisis, Robert Saint-Loup, and Marcel's great love Albertine, who is perhaps lesbian and who dies in a riding accident. The character was partly based on Alfred Agostinelli, Proust's chauffeur, secretary and live-in companion. Proust gradually deepens the portraits of his characters – Vinteuil, a modest piano teacher, turns out to be a great composer. In the climax of the novel the narrator fails to recognize many of his friends because they have changed so much physically during the years. Marcel realizes that his vocation as an artist is to capture the past still alive within us. And being was for Proust the complete past, "that past which already extended so far down and which I was bearing so painfully within me." In the narration past and present merge, reality appears in half-forgotten experiences, and parts of the past are felt differently at different times.
Proust is generally considered a pioneer of the modern novel. He made a clear distinction between man and work. The writer is a man of intuition. "A book is the product of a different self from the one we manifest in our habits, our social life and our vices," Proust wrote in his answer to the French critic Sainte-Beuve, who tried to understand writers by investigating their private life and environment.
Proust's work widely influenced authors in different countries, among them Virginia Woolf and James Joyce. His style of long sentences, some of which extend to several pages in length, paved the way for Claude Simon's narrative inventions. Proust later said that he had from the beginning a fixed structure for the whole novel. In the construction he used photographs; the author himself had a penchant for being photographed in uniform. One biographer mentions that Proust liked tight underwear.
Proust's literary criticism did not attract wide attention until 1954, when Contre Sainte-Beuve came out. He admired Vigny, Hugo, and Leconte de Lisle, but Baudelaire was for him the greatest poet of the nineteenth century. Proust denied Henri Bergson's influence on his work, although they both were much occupied with time and memory, emphasizing duration – time lived every day rather than clock time. The most famous of Proust's essays is that on Flaubert's style, in which he compares Flaubert's grammatical use of tenses to Kant's revolution in philosophy. A prolific writer, Proust also was an avid letter writer.

مارسيل بروست
(Marcel Proust؛ 10 يوليو 1871 - 18 نوفمبر 1922) روائي فرنسي عاش في أواخر القرن 19 وأوائل القرن 20 في باريس، من أبرز أعماله سلسلة روايات بحثا عن الزمن الضائع (بالفرنسية: &Agrave; la recherche du temps perdu) والتي تتألف من سبعة أجزاء نشرت بين عامي 1913 و1927، وهي اليوم تعتبر من أشهر الأعمال الأدبية الفرنسية. تستعرض كتاباته تأثير الماضي على الحاضر. كان بروست ناقداً ومترجماً واجتماعياً أيضاً.
ولد بروست بالقرب من باريس في عام 1871 لعائلة غنية، ودرس القانون والأدب. ارتباطاته الاجتماعية جعلته يرتاد غرف الضيوف الفخمة لدى النبلاء. قام بروست بكتابة عدد من المقالات للصحف الباريسية. نشر أيضاً القصص مثل "المتع والأيام" (1896). عانى من مرض الربو منذ طفولته، وأصبح مبتعداً عن المجتمع مع حلول العام 1897 بعدما ازدادت حالته الصحية سوء. كما أثرت وفاة والدته في العام 1905 على جعله أكثر انعزالاً. كان بروست نصف يهودي وأيد ألفرد دريفس كثيراً.
أهم اعماله : البحث عن الزمن الضائع بدأكتابتها في عام 1909 بالفرنسية، يتكون من سبعة مجلدات يبلغ مجموعها حوالي 3200 صفحة (حوالي 4300 في الترجمة المكتبة الحديثة). ودعا غراهام غرين بروست بالروائي الأعظم "في القرن 20"، وجورج سومرست موم يسمى رواية الخيال بالأكبر "حتى الآن". توفي بروست قبل أن يتمكن لاستكمال تنقيح مشاريعه والمجلدات الثلاثة الأخيرة التي نشرت بعد وفاته حررها شقيقه روبرت.
وقد ترجم الكتاب إلى اللغة الإنكليزية من قبل سكوت مونكريف كورونا، وظهرت تحت عنوان ذكرى الأشياء السابقة بين 1922 و 1931. ترجمة سكوت مونكريف من خلال ستة مجلدات واحدة من سبع مجلدات باسم الموت قبل الانتهاء من الماضي. وصدر هذا المجلد الأخير من قبل مترجمين آخرين في أوقات مختلفة. عندما تم تنقيح الترجمة في وقت لاحق سكوت مونكريف مع تغيير العنوان بترجمة أكثر حرفية وهو البحث عن الزمن الضائع.

==
-ولد بروست بالقرب من باريس في عام 1871 زمن ظهور الجمهورية الثالثة.
-عاش حياته مريضا من مرض الربو ووقعت له اول ازمة في سن التاسعة واعتبر بعد ذلك طفلا مريضا.
-قضى الكثير من العطل والاجازات في القرية بسبب المرض.
-درس في مدرسة داخلية من سن الحادية عشرة لكن دراستة انقطعت بسبب المرض.
-على الرغم من اعلاله خدم في الجيش الفرنسي لمدة عام وهو في سن 18 سنة.
-كان شاذ وكان من اوائل من تحدث عن شذوذه بشكل علني .
-مات ابوه عام 1903 وهو في سن 32 وماتت امه عام 1905 .
-بدأ اعتلال صحته يزداد بعد موت والديه.
-مات عام 1922 .
- أصبح مبتعداً عن المجتمع مع حلول العام 1897 بعدما ازدادت حالته الصحية سوء.
-كما أثرت وفاة والدته في العام 1905 على جعله أكثر انعزالاً.

Season of Migration to the North


by Tayeb Salih, Sudan, (b. 1929)


"Season of Migration to the North" is an Arabian Nights in reverse, enclosing a pithy moral about international misconceptions and delusions. The brilliant student of an earlier generation returns to his Sudanese village; obsession with the mysterious West and a desire to bite the hand that has half-fed him, has led him to London and the beds of women with similar obsessions about the mysterious East. He kills them at the point of ecstasy and the Occident, in its turn, destroys him. Powerfully and poetically written and splendidly translated by Denys Johnson-Davies' - "Observer".

موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال رواية كتبها الطيب صالح ونشرت في البداية في مجلة حوار (ع 5-6, ص 5-87) في أيلول/سبتمبر عام 1966، ثم نشرت بعد ذلك في كتاب مستقل عن دار العودة في بيروت في نفس العام. في هذه الرواية يزور مصطفى سعيد، وهو طالب عربي، الغرب. مصطفى يصل من الجنوب، من إفريقيا، بعيدا عن الثقافة الغربية إلى الغرب بصفة طالب. يحصل على وظيفة كمحاضر في إحدى الجامعات البريطانية ويتبنى قيم المجتمع البريطاني. هناك يتعرف إلى زوجته، جين موريس، وهي امرأة بريطانية ترفض قبول املاءات زوجها. بعد سبعة أعوام يعود مصطفى إلى بلاده، حيث يلتقي هناك بصورة مفاجئة براوي القصة الذي عاش أيضا في بريطانيا. القصة نفسها تروى عن طريق قصص يرويها الراوي والبطل.

اختيرت رواية موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال كواحدة من أفضل مائة رواية في القرن العشرين على مستوى الوطن العربي، ونالت استحسانا وقبولاً عالميا وحولت إلى فلم سينمائي. إجمالاً تتناول الرواية في مضمونها مسألة العلاقة بين الشرق والغرب. وتعد "موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال" من الاعمال العربية الأولى التي تناولت لقاء الثقافات وتفاعلها وصورة الاخر الغربي بعيون الشرقي والغربي بعيون الاخر الشرقي الذي ينظر إليه كشخص قادم من عالم رومانسي يسوده السحر ويكتنفه الغموض.
وقد تطرق الطيب صالح في روايته إلى هذه العلاقة من خلال شخصية بطلها السوداني الذي يذهب ليدرس في العاصمة البريطانية لندن. وهناك يضيف إلى جانب تميزه وذكائه العقلي وتحصيله الجامعي العالي رصيداً كبيراً في إثبات فحولته مع نساء بريطانيا الذين احتلوا بلاده مع تقديم صورة ساحرة عن الحياة في المجتمع الريفي السوداني.

الطيب صالح
(1929 - 18 فبراير 2009)، أديب سوداني وأحد أشهر الأدباء العرب أطلق عليه النقاد لقب "عبقري الرواية العربية". عاش في بريطانيا وقطر وفرنسا [1].

تنقل الطيب صالح بين عدة مواقع مهنية فعدا عن خبرة قصيرة في إدارة مدرسة، عمل ----الطيب صالح لسنوات طويلة من حياته في القسم العربي لهيئة الإذاعة البريطانية, وترقى بها حتى وصل إلى منصب مدير قسم الدراما, وبعد استقالته من البي بي سي عاد إلى السودان وعمل لفترة في الإذاعة السودانية, ثم هاجر إلى دولة قطر وعمل في وزارة إعلامها وكيلاً ومشرفاً على أجهزتها. عمل بعد ذلك مديراً إقليمياً بمنظمة اليونيسكو في باريس, وعمل ممثلاً لهذه المنظمة في الخليج العربي. ويمكن القول أن حالة الترحال والتنقل بين الشرق والغرب والشمال والجنوب أكسبته خبرة واسعة بأحوال الحياة والعالم وأهم من ذلك أحوال أمته وقضاياها وهو ما وظفه في كتاباته وأعماله الروائية وخاصة روايته العالمية موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال.
كتابته تتطرق بصورة عامة إلى السياسة، والى مواضيع أخرى متعلقة بالاستعمار, والمجتمع العربي والعلاقة بينه وبين الغرب. في اعقاب سكنه لسنوات طويلة في بريطانيا فان كتابته تتطرق إلى الاختلافات بين الحضارتين الغربية والشرقية. الطيب صالح معروف كأحد أشهر الكتاب في يومنا هذا، لا سيما بسبب قصصه القصيرة، التي تقف في صف واحد مع جبران خليل جبران، طه حسين ونجيب محفوظ.

الطيب صالح كتب العديد من الروايات التي ترجمت إلى أكثر من ثلاثين لغة وهي « موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال» و«عرس الزين» و«مريود» و«ضو البيت» و«دومة ود حامد» و«منسى». تعتبر روايته "موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال" واحدة من أفضل مائة رواية في العالم. وقد حصلت على العديد من الجوائز. وقد نشرت لأول مرة في اواخر الستينات من القرن العشرين في بيروت وتم تتويجه ك"عبقري الأدب العربي". في عام 2001 تم الاعتراف بكتابه من قبل الأكاديمية العربية في دمشق على أنه صاحب "الرواية العربية الأفضل في القرن العشرين.
أصدر الطيب صالح ثلاث روايات وعدة مجموعات قصصية قصيرة. روايته "عرس الزين" حولت إلى دراما في ليبيا ولفيلم سينمائي من إخراج المخرج الكويتي خالد صديق في أواخر السبعينات حيث فاز في مهرجان كان.
في مجال الصحافة، كتب الطيب صالح خلال عشرة أعوام عموداً أسبوعياً في صحيفة لندنية تصدر بالعربية تحت اسم "المجلة". خلال عمله في هيئة الإذاعة البريطانية تطرق الطيب صالح إلى مواضيع أدبية متنوعة. منذ عشرة أعوام يعيش في باريس حيث يتنقل بين مهن مختلفة، آخرها كان عمله كممثل اليونسكو لدول الخليج.

ومن المفهوم أن رواية "موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال" نالت شهرتها من كونها من أولى الروايات التي تناولت، بشكل فني راق، الصدام بين الحضارات وموقف إنسان العالم الثالث ـ النامي ورؤيته للعالم الأول المتقدم، ذلك الصدام الذي تجلى في الأعمال الوحشية دائماً، والرقيقة الشجية أحياناً، لبطل الرواية "مصطفى سعيد".
وآخر الدراسات الحديثة التي تناولت رواية "موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال" ورواية "بندر شاه" للمؤلف نفسه، تلك الدراسة التي نشرت أخيراً في سلسلة حوليات كلية الآداب التي يصدرها مجلس النشر العلمي في جامعة الكويت بعنوان "رؤية الموت ودلالتها في عالم الطيب صالح الروائي، من خلال روايتي: موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال، وبندر شاه" للدكتور عبد الرحمن عبد الرؤوف الخانجي، الأستاذ في قسم اللغة العربية ـ كلية الآداب جامعة الملك سعود. تتناول الدراسة بالبحث والتحليل رؤية الموت ودلالتها في أدب الطيب صالح الروائي في عملين بارزين من أعماله هما: "موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال" و"بندر شاه"، وتنقسم الدراسة إلى قسمين كبيرين وخاتمة.
يعالج القسم الأول منهما محوري الموت الرئيسيين في هاتين الروايتين: محور موت الأنثى، وهو موت آثم يرتبط في أكثر معانيه بغريزة الجنس ولا يخلو من عنف أم خطيئة، وموت الرجل وهو موت نبيل يرتبط بالكبرياء والسمو ولا يخلو من تضحية ونكران ذات.
هذان العالمان المتمايزان يثير الروائي من خلالهما عدداً من القضايا السياسية والاجتماعية والفكرية والنفسية، توحي بأزمة الصراع المكثف بين حضارتي الشرق والغرب فكأن المقابلة بين الأنثى والرجل ووضعهما في إطارين متمايزين من خلال الموت... وهي مقابلة من صنع مؤلف الدراسة لا الروائي ـ تلك الرؤية الفنية ترمي إلى اختصار الصراع بين عالمين مختلفين حضارياً: شمال ـ جنوب، هي في النهاية المعادل الفني لأزلية الصراع بين الشر والخير ممثلين في الأنثى ـ الشر، الخير ـ الرجل، و: شمال ـ أنثى ـ شر، جنوب ـ رجل ـ خير، بما لذلك من مردود أسطوري في وعي وذاكرة الإنسان الشرقي، وهو ما لم تشر إليه الدراسة مكتفية بتتبع أنواع الموت وطرائقه التي تمارس من قبل الرجل في الروايتين.
فالمرأة في موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال ضحية لرجل ـ دائماً ـ بينما الرجل ضحية ـ أيضاً ـ لظروف مجتمعية ساهم في خلقها مجتمع الضحية الأنثى بشكل ما، فعلاقة مصطفى سعيد بالأنثى هي دائماً علاقة آخرها موت مدمر إذ إن "مصطفى" ـ كما يلاحظ المؤلف ـ ينتقم في شخص الأنثى الغربية لسنوات الذل والقهر والاستعمار لينتهي بها الأمر إلى قتل نفسها بنفسها. موت الرجل ـ وهو المحور الثاني من القسم الأول ـ فهو دائماً موت علوي تتجلى دلالاته في العودة إلى النيل مصدر الحياة "ذهب من حيث أتى من الماء إلى الماء" كما في بندر شاه.
ويتناول القسم الثاني من الدراسة الدلالات الفكرية المتصلة بعالمي الموت وكيف عبرت الروايتان عن هذه الدلالات في قوالب فنية منتهياً إلى أشكال الموت لدى الطيب صالح توزعت على أطر ثلاثة:

وكل إطار من هذه الأطر الثلاثة عن رؤى فكرية وفلسفية ونفسية اقتضتها طبيعة الأحداث والمواقف... لكن النمط الأكثر بروزاً من أنماط الموت الثلاثة السابقة هو النمط الثاني الذي يمثله: الموت ـ القتل، حين جعلته رواية "موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال" يفجر طاقات متباينة من الدلالات الفكرية ووظائفها الفنية، وظل الموت ـ القتل في صراع الشخصيات يتراوح بين السلب والإيجاب وبين الرفض والقبول وبين القوة والضعف وتتبع الدراسة التجليات المختلفة لهذا النوع من الموت عبر روايتي: "موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال" و"بندر شاه". وتخلص الدراسة ـ عبر خاتمتها ـ إلى أن للموت سلطاناً لا ينكر على عالم الطيب صالح الروائي فقد وفق الروائي من خلال بناء هذا العالم في تقديم عطيل جديد هو: مصطفى سعيد عطيل القرن العشرين الذي حاول عقله أن يستوعب حضارة الغرب لا يبالي ولا يهاب، له القدرة على الفعل والإنجاز، يحارب الغرب بأسلحة الغرب.
وبعد: سوف يبقى الطيب صالح وأعماله الروائية والقصصية ذخيرة لا تنضب لبحث الباحثين نقاداً كانوا أم مؤرخين، فهو عالم ثري مليء بقضايا إنسان العالم الثالث الذي آمن به الطيب صالح وعبر عن همومه وآلامه، أفراحه وإحباطاته.

توفي في يوم الأربعاء 18 فبراير عام 2009 في لندن. شيع جثمانه يوم الجمعة 20 فبراير في السودان حيث حضر مراسم العزاء عدد كبير من الشخصيات البارزة والكتاب العرب والرئيس السوداني عمر البشير والسيد الصادق المهدي المفكر السوداني ورئيس الوزراء السابق، والسيد محمد عثمان الميرغني ،ولم يعلن التلفزيون السوداني ولا الاذاعات الحداد على الطيب صالح لكنها خصصت الكثير من النشرات الأخبارية والبرامج للحديث عنه.

بطل روايته يتيم وقد اتقن وصف ما يدور في خلد اليتيم وارجح انه اختبر اليتم شخصيا. طفولته مجهولة لكن يمكن لنا ان نتخيل كيف كانت عليه الظروف المعيشية في قرية سودانية في الثلاثنيات من القرن الماضي. لا بد انها كانت حياة شقاء وبؤس.

مجهول الطفولة.