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Independent People by Halldor K Laxness, Iceland, (1902-1998) First published in 1946, this humane epic novel is set in rural Iceland in the early twentieth century. Bjartus is a sheep farmer determined to eke a living from a blighted patch of land. Nothing, not merciless weather, nor his family will come between him and his goal of financial independence. Only Asta Solillja, the child he brings up as his daughter, can pierce his stubborn heart. As she grows up, keen to make her own way in the world, Bjartus' obstinacy threatens to estrange them forever == أناس مستقلون هالدور كيليان لاكسنس ترجمة و تعليق رشا المالحقال النقاد في الكاتب والروائي هالدور كيليان لاكسنس الآيسلندي الجنسية الذي فاز بجائزة نوبل للآداب عام 1955، بأنه روائي ذو روح شعرية ملحمية. إذ تضمن نسيج أعماله تاريخ حياة بلده وآدابها المحكية والمكتوبة، كما أكدوا بأن أهم أعماله تحمل روح تولستوي، وفي هذا الوصف كما يقولون الكثير من التواضع في حقه. وعليه، فإن جميع أعماله تتمحور حول آيسلندا البلد الاسكندنافي الصغير الذي عانى من هيمنة واحتلال البلدان المجاورة وعلى رأسها النرويج، ولم يحظ باستقلاله إلا عام 1944. ولا يخلو أي بيت فيها من كتاب واحد للاكسنس على الأقل فمن المعروف عن شعب آيسلندا عشقه للأدب.ولد لاكسنس في بلدة ريكلافك عام 1902، ونشأ في مزرعة عائلته، وقد شجعته عزلة الحياة في تلك المزرعة النائية على المطالعة والكتابة منذ الطفولة. وتناول تلك المرحلة من حياته في أول رواية له «طفل الطبيعة» التي نشرها حينما كان في السابعة عشرة من عمره فقط.وقبل تحوله إلى الكتابة كان يخطط لمهنته في المستقبل كموسيقي، لإجادته العزف على الكمان الذي ورث حبه له من والده. وبعد تخرجه من المدرسة اللاتينية الآيسلندية ونظرا لتوفر المال لدى عائلته، فقد سافر إلى أوروبا. وعند انتهاء الحرب العالمية الأولى، أمضى زمنا طويلا في أوروبا والولايات المتحدة، وحاول أن يجد لنفسه عملا في هوليوود ككاتب سيناريو. كرس في بداية سفره إلى أوروبا بضع سنوات، لدراسة الديانة المسيحية واللغات الأجنبية، وفي النهاية قرر عدم دخول سلك الرهبنة. وتجلت تلك المرحلة من حياته في مجموعة قصصه القصيرة وروايته «تحت الشلال» التي تعتبر بمثابة سيرة ذاتية له ونشرت عام 1923. أما الرواية التي لفتت أنظار الأوساط الأدبية إليه كانت «النساج العظيم من كشمير» ونشرت عام 1929 حيث توجه بعدها لمدة عامين إلى شمال أميركا، وهناك ربطته صداقة متينة بالروائي الأميركي أبتون سينكلير. وكان للأخير تأثير كبير على لاكسنس حيث أعاد صياغة العديد من أفكاره، إلى جانب تأثره بأزمة الركود الاقتصادي ومعاناة الشعب الأميركي خلالها.وفي عام 1930 عاد إلى وطنه. وأعلن نفسه اشتراكيا وتفرغ للكتابة ورصد مجتمعه وكانت جميع شخصيات أعماله من الذين يكافحون لأجل البقاء على قيد الحياة، وبذلك ابتعد عن رومانسية الطبيعة والقدرية التي كانت شخصياته أسيرتها في المرحلة السابقة. وتوج تلك المرحلة بروايته الشهيرة التي حققت شعبية واسعة «سالكا فالكا» ونشرت عام 1931، والبطولة فيها لامرأتين هما الأم ذات الشخصية الضعيفة الاتكالية والابنة المعتدة بنفسها المستقلة بذاتها والطموحة بعقلها. بعد هذه الرواية حصل على منحة من الدولة وتفرغ للكتابة. وأتت جميع أعماله حتى عام 1940 في ذات الإطار أو التوجه الفكري. وجدير بالذكر أنه بعد زيارته للاتحاد السوفييتي عام 1932 وعام 1938 ورؤيته لفشل النظام الاقتصادي الذي أثمر عن فقر مدقع، صرح مع صديقه بيرتولت بريخت في برلين الشرقية عام 1955 فشل النظام الستاليني والماركسي المتطرف. وفي عام 1935 حقق نقلة نوعية في نجاحه من خلال روايته الملحمية «أناس مستقلون» التي مهدت لفوزه لاحقا بجائزة نوبل، كما ازداد تألقه حينما نشر ثلاثيته «جرس آيسلندا» من عام 1943 إلى 1946 ويعرض من خلالها ثقافة وتاريخ بلده ابتداء من أوائل القرن الثامن عشر. ويضم نتاجه 60 عملا مابين روايات ومسرحيات ومقالات وقصص قصيرة وأدب رحلات. وفي عام 1955 انتقل لاكسنس إلى دار للرعاية حيث عانى من مرض الزهايمر وتوفي في 1 فبراير عام 1980. وفي روايته «أناس مستقلون» تجاوز لاكسنس نفسه على مختلف الأصعدة سواء في الإبداع الأدبي أو في نسيج السرد المتلاحم أو في الشخصيات أو في الحبكة والتوجه الفكري. ويرسم في روايته هذه صورة حية لحضارة شبه بدائية تعتمد على معتقدات تراثية زاخرة بالماورائيات والأساطير. وهي ملحمة تغطي بشمولية نتاج تعاقب الأجيال وفي ذات الوقت دقات الساعة في ليالي الأرق ودقائق الأحداث العاصفة واللحظات الهادئة. وهي رواية عن التناقضات سيما فيما يتعلق بالكشف عن نوازع ومكنونات أبطاله، التي تتباين ما بين الوحدة والأسرة، والأفكار الاشتراكية والإحساس بالذنب والخيانة ورموز الحكام التي تعكس الحقيقة المرة للطبقات الدنيا قبالتها إلى جانب مواجهتها لكوارث الطبيعة.وبطلا الرواية المحوريين هما بيارتور المزارع الذي يشتري قطعة أرض بعد خدمته لدى الغير لمدة 18 عاما. والذي يصارع ويتحدى الأهوال للبقاء مستقلا في حياته وعلى أرضه وإن أدى ذلك إلى موته، أما الشخصية الثانية فهي ابنته أستا سوليليا من زوجته الأولى التي توفيت لدى ولادتها، والتي هي أقرب الناس إليه ويصفها بأنها الزهرة التي تنمو من أسفل الحجر الصلد. وبينما بيارتور عصبي أناني وأحمق جميل وعنيد، فإن أستا غير عقلانية تقطر أحلاما ودموعا إلا أنها مثله تعتد باستقلاليتها. وعلى الرغم من ارتباطهما يفترق الاثنان حينما يطردها والدها بعد حملها من أحد زوار المنطقة، ولا تتردد أستيا في الرحيل لتبني حياتها مثله معتمدة على نفسها. وفي النهاية حينما ينفض الجميع من حوله بعد وفاة زوجتيه الأولى والثانية ورحيل ابنه توني الشاب الحساس ذو الخيال الواسع الذي كان يتأرجح بن شخصيته كفنان وبين بقائه في ظل والده كضحية، إلى جانب خسارته لكل ما لديه سواء على صعيد الزراعة أو تربية المواشي، يلتقي بابنته ليتجدد رباطهما. ويتجلى في هذا العمل رفض بيارتور للموروث والتطيرات ومنها اللعنة التي أشيع أن عجوزا ألقتها على أرضه، وعلى الرغم من جميع الكوارث التي تواجهه والضغوطات المستمرة سواء من المستثمرين أو البنوك أو الطبيعة إلا أنه يظل صامدا متمسكا بقناعته بأن استقلال الإنسان هو هدفه في الحياة وإن كلفه موته. =============== رشا المالح |
هالدور لاكسنس هو أديب آيسلندي ولد في 23 افريل 1902 وتوفي في 8 فيفري 1998. تحصل على جائزة نوبل في الأدب لسنة 1955 و ايضا حصل على جائزة الاتحاد السوفيتي للسلام في الاعمال الادبيةو كان ذلك في سنة 1953 . تتمحور جميع أعماله حول بلده آيسلندا. نشر أول رواية له في سن السابعة عشرة من عمره تناول فيها مرحلة طفولته وأطلق على الرواية اسم «طفل الطبيعة». أما الرواية التي لفتت أنظار الأوساط الأدبية إليه كانت «النساج العظيم من كشمير» ونشرت عام 1929. تخرج من المدرسة اللاتينية الآيسلندية وبعدها زار أرجاء أوروبا لدراسة الديانة المسيحية واللغات الأجنبية، وفي النهاية قرر عدم دخول سلك الرهبنة. وعند انتهاء الحرب العالمية الأولى، أمضى زمنا طويلا في أوروبا والولايات المتحدة، وحاول أن يجد لنفسه عملا في هوليوود ككاتب سيناريو بين 1927 و 1929 Halldór Kiljan Laxness (Icelandic: [ˈhaltour ˈcʰɪljan ˈlaxsnɛs] (listen); born Halldór Guðjónsson; 23 April 1902 – 8 February 1998) was a twentieth-century Icelandic writer. Throughout his career Laxness wrote poetry, newspaper articles, plays, travelogues, short stories, and novels. Major influences on his writings include August Strindberg, Sigmund Freud, Sinclair Lewis, Upton Sinclair, Bertolt Brecht and Ernest Hemingway.[1] He received the 1955 Nobel Prize in Literature, and is the only Icelandic Nobel laureate. Early lifeLaxness was born under the name Halldór Guðjónsson (following the tradition of Icelandic patronymics) in Reykjavík in 1902, the son of Guðjón Helgason and Sigríður Halldórsdóttir. After spending his early years in Reykjavík, he moved with his family in 1905 to Laxnes near Mosfellsbær, a more rural area just north of the capital. He soon started to read books and write stories. At the age of 14 his first article was published in the newspaper Morgunblaðið under the name "H.G." His first book, the novel Barn náttúrunnar (translated Child of Nature), was published in 1919.[2] At the time of its publication he had already begun his travels on the European continent.[3] 1920sIn 1922, Laxness joined the Abbaye St. Maurice et St. Maur in Clervaux, Luxembourg. The monks followed the rules of Saint Benedict of Nursia. Laxness was baptized and confirmed in the Catholic Church early in 1923. Following his confirmation, he adopted the surname Laxness (in honor of the homestead where he had been raised) and added the name Kiljan (an Icelandic spelling of the IrishmartyrSaint Killian). 1930sInside the walls of the abbey, he practiced self-study, read books, and studied French, Latin, theology and philosophy. While there, he composed the story Undir Helgahnjúk, published in 1924. Soon after his baptism, he became a member of a group which prayed for reversion of the Nordic countries back to Catholicism. Laxness wrote of his Catholicism in the book Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír, published in 1927: "For a while he reached a safe haven in a Catholic monastery in Luxembourg, whence he sent home surrealistic poetry and gathered material for the great autobiographical novel recording his mental development, 'a witch brew of ideas presented in a stylistic furioso' (Peter Hallberg), Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír. I have long thought that this work was marked by the chaos of German expressionism; at any rate it has the abandon advocated by André Breton, the master of French surrealism. It created a sensation in Iceland and was hailed by Kristjan Albertsson as the epoch-making book it really was. In the future Laxness was always in the vanguard of stylistic development..."[4] "Laxness's religious period did not last long; during a visit to America he became attracted to socialism.".[5] Partly under the influence of Upton Sinclair, with whom he'd become friends in California, "With Alþydubókin (1929) Laxness... joined the socialist bandwagon... a book of brilliant burlesque and satirical essays... one of a long series in which he discussed his many travel impressions (Russia, western Europe, South America), unburdened himself of socialistic satire and propaganda, and wrote of the literature and the arts, essays of prime importance to an understanding of his own art..."[6] Laxness lived in the United States and attempted to write screenplays for Hollywood films between 1927 and 1929.[7] By the 1930s he "had become the apostle of the younger generation" and was attacking "viciously" the Christian spiritualism of Einar Hjörleifsson Kvaran, an influential writer who had also been considered for the Nobel Prize.[8] [1940s"... with "Salka Valka" (1931–32) began the great series of sociological novels, often coloured with socialist ideas, continuing almost without a break for nearly twenty years. This was probably the most brilliant period of his career, and it is the one which produced those of his works that have become most famous. But Laxness never attached himself permanently to a particular dogma."[9] Other major works from this period include Sjálfstætt fólk (Independent People, 1934, 1935), and Heimsljós (World Light, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1940): "... which has been consistently regarded by many critics as his most important work.".[10] He also traveled to the Soviet Union and wrote approvingly of the Soviet system and culture.[11] Laxness translated Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms into Icelandic in 1941, with controversial neologisms.[12] Laxness published the sprawling three-part Íslandsklukkan (Iceland's Bell, 1943–46) a historical novel. In 1946 Independent People was released as a book of the month club selection in the United States, selling over 450,000 copies.[13] In response to the establishment of a permanent US military base in Keflavík, he wrote the satire Atómstöðin (The Atom Station), an action which, in part, may have caused his blacklisting in the United States.[14] "The demoralization of the occupation period is described... nowhere as dramatically as in Halldor Kiljan Laxness' Atómstöðin (1948)... [where he portrays] postwar society in Reykjavík, completely torn from its moorings by the avalanche of foreign gold"[15] |
Icelandic writer, who won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1955. Laxness published his first book at the age of 17. He is best-known for his fiction depicting the hardships of the working fishermen and farmers, and historical novels combining the tradition of sagas and mythology with national and social issues. Along w ith Gunnar Gunnarsson (1889-1975) and Kristman Guðmundsson (1902-1983) Laxness was among the first internationally known Icelandic authors. "I spent my entire childhood in an environment in which the mighty of the earth had no place outside story books and dreams. Love of, and respect for, the humble routine of everyday life and its creatures was the only moral commandment which carried conviction when I was a child." (from Laxness's Nobel acceptance speech) Halldór Kiljan Laxness was born Halldór Gudjónsson in Reykjavík. When he was three, his parents Guðjón Helgason and Sigríður Halldórsdóttir moved to Laxnes, a farm in nearby Mosfellssveit parish, where the young Halldór spent his boyhood. His pen name Laxness took from the farm. Besides taking care of the farm, his father worked as a road construction foreman. An accomplished amateur violinist, he also taught his son to play the instrument. Before turning to writing, Laxness planned a career as musician. Barn náttúrunnar (1919), the author's first book, came out when he was 17. Laxness was educated at the Icelandic Latin School and he attended the gymnasium in Reykjavík briefly, without graduating. His family had enough money to allow him to travel freely. After World War I Laxness spent much time in Europe and the United States, where he tried to find place in Hollywood film industry. In 1923 Laxness turned to Catholicism and got the name Kiljan after Irish St Kilian. He spent some time at Saint-Maurice de Clervaux, a monastery in Luxemburg, studied in London at a Jesuit-run school, and continued his spiritual search at Lourdes and Rome. Laxness wrote several books with Catholic themes before arriving at a state of disillusionment. His controversial first major novel, Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír (1927), was partly written under the influence of St Thomas à Kempis and the surrealist poet André Breton. Laxness also read Proust while writing the book. A number of publishers rejected the work before it appeared. Laxness's veiled autobiography broke with the epic realism traditional in Icelandic fiction. In the end of the novel, the young protagonist turns to God, but in his own life Laxness become less and less interested in metaphysical questions, and finally he abandoned the Catholic faith. Returning to Iceland, Laxness spent several years traveling through the country. During a stay in the United States, he lectured among others about fishing at a IWW (Industrial Workers of the World) club, but was not enthusiastic by their anarchist activities and believed that they opposed as much Marx and Lenin as Rockefeller and Morgan. In San Francisco he read James Joyce's Ulysses – later he wondered why Joyce is not counted among the most important surrealist writers. German authors, such as Thomas Mann, did not inspire him – according to Laxness, Mann was too professor-like and Goethe overrated. Perhaps the most important novelist for him was Upton Sinclair, whom he considered primus inter pares and who influenced his novel Salka Valka (1931-32). Sinclair did not mention Laxness in his book of memoir, but Laxness's letters are included in My Lifetime in Letters, Upton Sinclair (1960). In June 1929 the Los Angeles Record published news about an "Icelandic author who faces possible deportation" – immigration officers taken away Laxness's passport. After the intervention of Sinclair and Helen Crane, the niece of Stephen Crane, it was given back. In 1930 Laxness married Ingibjørg Einarsdóttir and settled in Reykjavík. His financial situation became stable when he started to receive the state writer's grant. Permanent residence Laxness found from the parish of his youth. Salka Valka was Laxness's breakthrough novel and reflected his Socialistic views which marked his novels in the 1930s and 1940s. The story depicted a young woman, Salka, and a small fishing community. Evil enters into the community in the form of merchants and fishing entrepreneurs and is pitted against labor movement. The book gained a huge success in England. The Evening Standard wrote that Greta Garbo would be the perfect Salka in its film adaptation. Other early works include World Light (1937-40), about a sympathetic folk poet Ólafur Kárason. The book was based on the life of the minor poet Magnús Hjaltason and showed the influence of Knut Hamsun. The trilogy Iceland's Bell, published when the author was in his 40s, made him famous and a prominent spokesman for the Icelandic nation. == Halldór Kiljan Laxness was born in 1902 in Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, but spent his youth in the country. From the age of seventeen on, he travelled and lived abroad, chiefly on the European continent. He was influenced by expressionism and other modern currents in Germany and France. In the mid-twenties he was converted to Catholicism; his spiritual experiences are reflected in several books of an autobiographical nature, chiefly Undir Helgahnúk (Under the Holy Mountain), 1924. In 1927, he published his first important novel, Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír (The Great Weaver from Kashmir). Laxness's religious period did not last long; during a visit to America he became attracted to socialism. Alþydubókin (The Book of the People), 1929, is evidence of a change toward a socialist outlook. In 1930, Laxness settled in Iceland. From Nobel Lectures, Literature 1901-1967, Editor Horst Frenz, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1969 Laxness's main achievement consists of three novel cycles written during the thirties, dealing with the people of Iceland. Þú vínviður hreini, 1931, and Fuglinn í fjörunni, 1932, (both translated as Salka Valka), tell the story of a poor fisher girl; Sjálfstætt fólk (Independent People), 1934-35, treats the fortunes of small farmers, whereas the tetralogy Ljós heimsins (The Light of the World), 1937-40, has as its hero an Icelandic folk poet. Laxness's later works are frequently historical and influenced by the saga tradition: Íslandsklukkan (The Bell of Iceland), 1943-46, Gerpla (The Happy Warriors), 1952, and Paradísarheimt (Paradise Reclaimed), 1960. Laxness is also the author of the topical and sharply polemical Atómstöðin (The Atom Station), 1948. This autobiography/biography was written at the time of the award and first published in the book series Les Prix Nobel. It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures. To cite this document, always state the source as shown above. == |
هالدور لاكسنس
هو أديب آيسلندي ولد في 23 افريل 1902 وتوفي في 8 فيفري 1998. تحصل على جائزة نوبل في الأدب لسنة 1955 و ايضا حصل على جائزة الاتحادالسوفيتي للسلام في الاعمال الادبيةو كان ذلك في سنة 1953 . تتمحور جميع أعماله حولبلدهآيسلندا. نشر أولرواية له في سن السابعة عشرة من عمره تناول فيها مرحلة طفولته وأطلق على الروايةاسم «طفل الطبيعة». أما الرواية التي لفتت أنظار الأوساط الأدبية إليه كانت «النساجالعظيم من كشمير» ونشرت عام 1929. تخرج منالمدرسة اللاتينية الآيسلندية وبعدها زار أرجاء أوروبا لدراسة الديانةالمسيحيةواللغاتالأجنبية، وفي النهاية قرر عدم دخول سلك الرهبنة. وعند انتهاءالحرب العالميةالأولى، أمضى زمنا طويلا في أوروباوالولايات المتحدة، وحاول أن يجد لنفسه عملا فيهوليوودككاتبسيناريو بين 1927 و 1929 Halldór Kiljan Laxness (Icelandic: [ˈhaltour ˈcʰɪljan ˈlaxsnɛs] (listen); born Halldór Guðjónsson; 23 April 1902 – 8 February 1998) was a twentieth-century Icelandic writer. Throughout his career Laxness wrote poetry, newspaper articles, plays, travelogues, short stories, and novels. Major influences on his writings include August Strindberg, Sigmund Freud, Sinclair Lewis, Upton Sinclair, Bertolt Brecht and Ernest Hemingway. He received the 1955 Nobel Prize in Literature, and is the only Icelandic Nobel laureate. انتقل وعمرهثلاث سنوات مع عائلته إلى الريف حيث عاش في مزرعة والده. درس في المدرسة اللاتينية. سافر في أنحاء أوروبا وامريكا منذ كان في الـ 17. عاش في دير لفترة لكنه قرر عدم الانضمام إلى سلك الرهبنة. لا يوجد معلومات عن والديه.Early life Laxness was born under the name Halldór Guðjónsson (following the tradition of Icelandic patronymics) in Reykjavik in 1902, the son of Guðjón Helgason and Sigríður Halldórsdóttir. After spending his early years in Reykjavik, he moved with his family in 1905 to Laxnes near Mosfellsbær, a more rural area just north of the capital. He soon started to read books and write stories. At the age of 14 his first article was published in the newspaper Morgunblaðið under the name "H.G." His first book, the novel Barn náttúrunnar (translated Child of Nature), was published in 1919.[2] At the time of its publication he had already begun his travels on the European continent. 1920s In 1922, Laxness joined the Abbaye St. Maurice et St. Maur in Clervaux, Luxembourg. The monks followed the rules of Saint Benedict of Nursia. Laxness was baptized and confirmed in the Catholic Church early in 1923. Following his confirmation, he adopted the surname Laxness (in honor of the homestead where he had been raised) and added the name Kiljan (an Icelandic spelling of the Irish martyr Saint Killian). Inside the walls of the abbeyدير , he practiced self-study, read books, and studied French, Latin, theology and philosophy. While there, he composed the story Undir Helgahnjúk, published in 1924. Soon after his baptism, he became a member of a group which prayed for reversion of the Nordic countries back to Catholicism. Laxness wrote of his Catholicism in the book Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír, published in 1927: "For a while he reached a safe haven in a Catholic monastery in Luxembourg, whence he sent home surrealistic poetry and gathered material for the great autobiographical novel recording his mental development, 'a witch brew of ideas presented in a stylistic furioso' (Peter Hallberg), Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír. I have long thought that this work was marked by the chaos of German expressionism; at any rate it has the abandon advocated by André Breton, the master of French surrealism. It created a sensation in Iceland and was hailed by Kristjan Albertsson as the epoch-making book it really was. In the future Laxness was always in the vanguard of stylistic development..."[4] "Laxness's religious period did not last long; during a visit to America he became attracted to socialism." Partly under the influence of Upton Sinclair, with whom he'd become friends in California, "With Alþydubókin (1929) Laxness... joined the socialist bandwagon... a book of brilliant burlesque and satirical essays... one of a long series in which he discussed his many travel impressions (Russia, western Europe, South America), unburdened himself of socialistic satire and propaganda, and wrote of the literature and the arts, essays of prime importance to an understanding of his own art..." Laxness lived in the United States and attempted to write screenplays for Hollywood films between 1927 and 1929. مجهول الطفولة |
Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison, United States, (1914-1994) The lives of countless millions are evoked in Ralph Ellison's superb portrait of a generation of black Americans, "Invisible Man". This "Penguin Modern Classics" edition includes an introduction by John F. Callahan, as well as an introduction by the author. Ralph Ellison's blistering and impassioned first novel tells the extraordinary story of a man invisible 'simply because people refuse to see me'. Published in 1952 when American society was in the cusp of immense change, the powerfully depicted adventures of Ellison's invisible man - from his expulsion from a Southern college to a terrifying Harlem race riot - go far beyond the story of one individual. As John Callahan says, 'In an extraordinary imaginative leap, he hit upon a single word for the different yet shared condition of African Americans, Americans, and, for that matter, the human individual in the twentieth century and beyond.' This edition includes Ralph Ellison's introduction to the thirtieth anniversary edition of "Invisible Man", a fascinating account of the novel's seven-year gestation. Ralph Waldo Ellison (1914-94), named for the poet Emerson, was born in Oklahoma.At the age of nineteen he won a scholarship to study music at Booker T. Washington's Tuskegee Institute. In 1936 he went to New York, where he met the writers Langston Hughes and Richard Wright; shortly afterwards his stories and articles began to appear in magazines and journals. After the Second World War Ellison was awarded a Rosenwald Fellowship, allowing him to concentrate on the composition of "Invisible Man" (1952), which won the National Book Award and established Ellison as a major figure in twentieth-century fiction. If you enjoyed "Invisible Man", you might like E.L. Doctorow's "The Book of Daniel", also available in "Penguin Modern Classics". = INVISIBLE MAN established Ralph Ellison as the author of one of the most important and influential American novels of the twentieth century. He is remembered as a writer who captured a true sense of the African-American experience. JUNETEENTH joins INVISIBLE MAN and FLYING HOME & OTHER STORIES on the Penguin Modern Classics list. == Invisible Man is a 1952 novel written by Ralph Ellison. It addresses many of the social and intellectual issues facing African-Americans early in the twentieth century, including black nationalism, the relationship between black identity and Marxism, and the reformist racial policies of Booker T. Washington, as well as issues of individuality and personal identity. Invisible Man won the U.S. National Book Award for Fiction in 1953.[1] In 1998, the Modern Library ranked Invisible Man nineteenth on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. Time magazine included the novel in its TIME 100 Best English-language Novels from 1923 to 2005.[2] Critic Harold Bloom considers Invisible Man one of the finest American novels of the 20th century.[citation needed] Historical background Ellison says in his introduction to the 30th Anniversary Edition[3] that he started writing what would eventually become Invisible Man in a barn in Waitsfield, Vermont in the summer of 1945 while on sick leave from the Merchant Marine. The letters he wrote to fellow novelist Richard Wright as he started working on the novel provide evidence for its political context: the disillusion with the Communist Party that he and Wright shared. In a letter to Wright August 18, 1945, Ellison poured out his anger toward party leaders for betraying African Americans and Marxist class politics during the war years. "If they want to play ball with the bourgeoisie they needn't think they can get away with it.... Maybe we can't smash the atom, but we can, with a few well chosen, well written words, smash all that crummy filth to hell." In the wake of this disillusion, Ellison began writing Invisible Man, a novel that was, in part, his response to the party's betrayal.[4] Plot introductionIn an interview in The Paris Review 1955,[5] Ellison states that the book took five years to complete with one year off for what he termed an "ill-conceived short novel." Invisible Man was published as a whole in 1952; however, copyright dates show the initial publication date as 1947, 1948, indicating that Ellison had published a section of the book prior to full publication. That section was the famous "Battle Royal" scene, which had been shown to Cyril Connolly, the editor of Horizon magazine by Frank Taylor, one of Ellison's early supporters. In his speech accepting the 1953 National Book Award,[6] Ellison says that he considered the novel's chief significance to be its experimental attitude. Rejecting the idea of social protest—as Ellison would later put it—he did not want to write another protest novel, and also seeing the highly regarded styles of Naturalism and Realism too limiting to speak to the broader issues of race and America, Ellison created an open style, one that did not restrict his ideas to a movement but was more free-flowing in its delivery. What Ellison finally settled on was a style based heavily upon modern symbolism. It was the kind of symbolism that Ellison first encountered in the poem, The Waste Land by T. S. Eliot.[7][not specific enough to verify] Ellison had read this poem as a freshman at the Tuskegee Institute and was immediately impressed by The Waste Land's ability to merge his two greatest passions, that of music and literature, for it was in The Waste Land that he first saw jazz set to words. When asked later what he had learned from the poem, Ellison responded: imagery, and also improvisation—techniques he had only before seen in jazz. Ellison always believed that he would be a musician first and a writer second, and yet even so he had acknowledged that writing provided him a "growing satisfaction." It was a "covert process," according to Ellison: "a refusal of his right hand to let his left hand know what it was doing."[8] Invisible Man is autobiographically narrated in the first person by the protagonist, an unnamed African American man who considers himself socially invisible. Ellison conceived his narrator as a spokesman for black Americans of the time: So my task was one of revealing the human universals hidden within the plight of one who was both black and American...[9] Ellison struggled to find a style appropriate to his vision. Wanting to avoid writing "nothing more than another novel of racial protest," he settled on a narrator "who had been forged in the underground of American experience and yet managed to emerge less angry than ironic." To this end, he modeled his narrator after the nameless narrator of Dostoevsky's Notes From Underground, which similarly applies irony and paradox toward far-reaching social criticism.[10] Plot summaryThe story is told from the narrator's present, looking back into his past. Thus, the narrator has hindsight in how his story is told, as he is already aware of the outcome. In the Prologue, Ellison's narrator tells readers, "I live rent-free in a building rented strictly to whites, in a section of the basement that was shut off and forgotten during the nineteenth century." In this secret place, the narrator creates surroundings that are symbolically illuminated with 1,369 lights from the electric company Monopolated Light & Power. He says, "My hole is warm and full of light. Yes, full of light. I doubt if there is a brighter spot in all New York than this hole of mine, and I do not exclude Broadway." The protagonist explains that light is an intellectual necessity for him since "the truth is the light and light is the truth." From this underground perspective, the narrator attempts to make sense out of his life, experiences, and position in American society. The narrator begins telling his story with the claim that he is an “invisible man.” His invisibility, he says, is not a physical condition—he is not literally invisible—but is rather the result of the refusal of others to see him. He says that because of his invisibility, he has been hiding from the world, living underground and stealing electricity from the Monopolated Light & Power Company. He burns 1,369 light bulbs simultaneously and listens to Louis Armstrong’s “(What Did I Do to Be So) Black and Blue” on a phonograph. He says that he has gone underground in order to write the story of his life and invisibility. As a young man, in the late 1920s or early 1930s, the narrator lived in the South. Because he is a gifted public speaker, he is invited to give a speech to a group of important white men in his town. The men reward him with a briefcase containing a scholarship to a prestigious black college, but only after humiliating him by forcing him to fight in a “battle royal” in which he is pitted against other young black men, all blindfolded, in a boxing ring. After the battle royal, the white men force the youths to scramble over an electrified rug in order to snatch at fake gold coins. The narrator has a dream that night in which he imagines that his scholarship is actually a piece of paper reading “To Whom It May Concern . . . Keep This Nigger-Boy Running.” Three years later, the narrator is a student at the college. He is asked to drive a wealthy white trustee of the college, Mr. Norton, around the campus. Norton talks incessantly about his daughter, then shows an undue interest in the narrative of Jim Trueblood, a poor, uneducated black man who impregnated his own daughter. After hearing this story, Norton needs a drink, and the narrator takes him to the Golden Day, a saloon and brothel that normally serves black men. A fight breaks out among a group of mentally imbalanced black veterans at the bar, and Norton passes out during the chaos. He is tended by one of the veterans, who claims to be a doctor and who taunts both Norton and the narrator for their blindness regarding race relations. Back at the college, the narrator listens to a long, impassioned sermon by the Reverend Homer A. Barbee on the subject of the college’s Founder, whom the blind Barbee glorifies with poetic language. After the sermon, the narrator is chastised by the college president, Dr. Bledsoe, who has learned of the narrator’s misadventures with Norton at the old slave quarters and the Golden Day. Bledsoe rebukes the narrator, saying that he should have shown the white man an idealized version of black life. He expels the narrator, giving him seven letters of recommendation addressed to the college’s white trustees in New York City, and sends him there in search of a job. The narrator travels to the bright lights and bustle of 1930s Harlem, where he looks unsuccessfully for work. The letters of recommendation are of no help. At last, the narrator goes to the office of one of his letters’ addressees, a trustee named Mr. Emerson. There he meets Emerson’s son, who opens the letter and tells the narrator that he has been betrayed: the letters from Bledsoe actually portray the narrator as dishonorable and unreliable. The young Emerson helps the narrator to get a low-paying job at the Liberty Paints plant, whose trademark color is “Optic White.” The narrator briefly serves as an assistant to Lucius Brockway, the black man who makes this white paint, but Brockway suspects him of joining in union activities and turns on him. The two men fight, neglecting the paint-making; consequently, one of the unattended tanks explodes, and the narrator is knocked unconscious. The narrator wakes in the paint factory’s hospital, having temporarily lost his memory and ability to speak. The white doctors seize the arrival of their unidentified black patient as an opportunity to conduct electric shock experiments. After the narrator recovers his memory and leaves the hospital, he collapses on the street. Some black community members take him to the home of Mary, a kind woman who lets him live with her for free in Harlem and nurtures his sense of black heritage. One day, the narrator witnesses the eviction of an elderly black couple from their Harlem apartment. Standing before the crowd of people gathered before the apartment, he gives an impassioned speech against the eviction. Brother Jack overhears his speech and offers him a position as a spokesman for the Brotherhood, a political organization that allegedly works to help the socially oppressed. After initially rejecting the offer, the narrator takes the job in order to pay Mary back for her hospitality. But the Brotherhood demands that the narrator take a new name, break with his past, and move to a new apartment. The narrator is inducted into the Brotherhood at a party at the Chthonian Hotel and is placed in charge of advancing the group’s goals in Harlem. After being trained in rhetoric by a white member of the group named Brother Hambro, the narrator goes to his assigned branch in Harlem, where he meets the handsome, intelligent black youth leader Tod Clifton. He also becomes familiar with the black nationalist leader Ras the Exhorter, who opposes the interracial Brotherhood and believes that black Americans should fight for their rights over and against all whites. The narrator delivers speeches and becomes a high-profile figure in the Brotherhood, and he enjoys his work. One day, however, he receives an anonymous note warning him to remember his place as a black man in the Brotherhood. Not long after, the black Brotherhood member Brother Wrestrum accuses the narrator of trying to use the Brotherhood to advance a selfish desire for personal distinction. While a committee of the Brotherhood investigates the charges, the organization moves the narrator to another post, as an advocate of women’s rights. After giving a speech one evening, he is seduced by one of the white women at the gathering, who attempts to use him to play out her sexual fantasies about black men. After a short time, the Brotherhood sends the narrator back to Harlem, where he discovers that Clifton has disappeared. Many other black members have left the group, as much of the Harlem community feels that the Brotherhood has betrayed their interests. The narrator finds Clifton on the street selling dancing “Sambo” dolls—dolls that invoke the stereotype of the lazy and obsequious slave. Clifton apparently does not have a permit to sell his wares on the street. White policemen accost him and, after a scuffle, shoot him dead as the narrator and others look on. On his own initiative, the narrator holds a funeral for Clifton and gives a speech in which he portrays his dead friend as a hero, galvanizing public sentiment in Clifton’s favor. The Brotherhood is furious with him for staging the funeral without permission, and Jack harshly castigates him. As Jack rants about the Brotherhood’s ideological stance, a glass eye falls from one of his eye sockets. The Brotherhood sends the narrator back to Brother Hambro to learn about the organization’s new strategies in Harlem. The narrator leaves feeling furious and anxious to gain revenge on Jack and the Brotherhood. He arrives in Harlem to find the neighborhood in ever-increased agitation over race relations. Ras confronts him, deploring the Brotherhood’s failure to draw on the momentum generated by Clifton’s funeral. Ras sends his men to beat up the narrator, and the narrator is forced to disguise himself in dark glasses and a hat. In his dark glasses, many people on the streets mistake him for someone named Rinehart, who seems to be a pimp, bookie, lover, and reverend all at once. At last, the narrator goes to Brother Hambro’s apartment, where Hambro tells him that the Brotherhood has chosen not to emphasize Harlem and the black movement. He cynically declares that people are merely tools and that the larger interests of the Brotherhood are more important than any individual. Recalling advice given to him by his grandfather, the narrator determines to undermine the Brotherhood by seeming to go along with them completely. He decides to flatter and seduce a woman close to one of the party leaders in order to obtain secret information about the group. But the woman he chooses, Sybil, knows nothing about the Brotherhood and attempts to use the narrator to fulfill her fantasy of being raped by a black man. While still with Sybil in his apartment, the narrator receives a call asking him to come to Harlem quickly. The narrator hears the sound of breaking glass, and the line goes dead. He arrives in Harlem to find the neighborhood in the midst of a full-fledged riot, which he learns was incited by Ras. The narrator becomes involved in setting fire to a tenement building. Running from the scene of the crime, he encounters Ras, dressed as an African chieftain. Ras calls for the narrator to be lynched. The narrator flees, only to encounter two policemen, who suspect that his briefcase contains loot from the riots. In his attempt to evade them, the narrator falls down a manhole. The police mock him and draw the cover over the manhole. The narrator says that he has stayed underground ever since; the end of his story is also the beginning. He states that he finally has realized that he must honor his individual complexity and remain true to his own identity without sacrificing his responsibility to the community. He says that he finally feels ready to emerge from underground |
الرجل الخفي أدب الخيال الجيد منسوج من الواقع، ومن الصعب الوصول إلى احتمالات حقيقته. فالكثير منها يعتمد على مدى رغبة الفرد في اكتشاف نفسه الحقيقية عبر تعريفها استنادا على خلفيته»، تصريح للأديب الأميركي الإفريقي الأصل رالف والدو إليسون الذي اشتهر بروايته الخالدة «الرجل الخفي» التي نشرت عام 1952. وُلد رالف والدو إليسون في 1 مارس عام 1914 في أوكلاهوما، والمعروف أن من أسباب قدرته على تجاوز مرارة التمييز العنصري ومشاعر النقمة هو تكريس نفسه للفن. وعلى الرغم من وفاة والده حينما كان في الثالثة من عمره، إلا أن والدته آيدا استطاعت بقوة إرادتها ومثابرتها منح طفلها حياة آمنة، كما شجعته على القراءة ووفرت له العديد من الكتب من بيوت مخدوميها. تعلم إليسون وأتقن العزف على البوق في الثانوية، وحينما أنهى دراسته نال منحة لدراسة الموسيقى في آلاباما عام 1933. بقي في المدينة الجديدة الأكثر تحفظا وعنصرية من بلدته، ثلاث سنوات. انتقل بعدها إلى نيويورك، وهناك التقى بالكاتب ريتشارد رايت الذي أمن له عملا في مشروع الكتّاب الفيدراليين، وساعده على تطوير موهبته في الكتابة. وفي عام 1939 بدأ إليسون بنشر القصص القصيرة وعروض الكتب والمقالات، ومع انتهاء الحرب العالمية الثانية وبعد خدمته في بحرية الولايات المتحدة، حاز على زمالة روزنولد التي مكنته من التركيز على كتابة روايته الأولى «الرجل الخفي». حققت له تلك الرواية نجاحا فوريا لدى نشرها، واختلفت آراء النقاد بشأن معالجة الأحداث بموضوعية. وبعد مضي ثلاثة عشر عاما، اختارت صحيفة نيويورك هيرالد تريبيون روايته تلك كأهم كتاب نشر خلال الفترة من عام 1945 إلى 1965. وكان إليسون الذي حاز على العديد من الجوائز الأدبية يعمل على روايته الثانية بصبر وهدوء وعلى مدى عشر سنوات، حينما أصيب بمرض السرطان في البنكرياس وتوفي في نيويورك في 16 أبريل 1994، وعليه نشرت روايته «جونتينث» بعد وفاته. وعلى الرغم من أن رواية «الرجل الخفي» تتحدث عن حياة ومجتمع الأميركيين الأفارقة، إلا أنها في الواقع أعم وأشمل بإنسانيتها فمعاناة أو واقع الحياة التي يعيشها بطل الرواية وهو شاب في مستهل حياته، يمكن أن يتشابه مع واقع الفوارق الطبقية والعائلية والعرقية والطائفية وغيرها. ومن هذا المفهوم اكتسبت الرواية ديمومتها التي عززتها جماليات كل من اللغة والإيقاع الموسيقي، والمستمدة كما أوضح الكاتب من أغاني وموسيقى الجاز التي برع فيها الأفارقة الأميركان. إلى جانب الرمزية والشعرية. كان البطل الشاب في بداية الرواية طالبا نموذجيا على كافة الأصعدة. ولا يتردد في إلقاء خطاب التخرج من المرحلة الثانوية أمام حشد كبير من الناس، مما يثير إعجاب أحد الأثرياء البيض. يدعو هذا الثري الشاب إلى حفل في قصره ليقرأ الخطاب أمام أصدقائه في الجامعة، يرى الشاب في عميد الجامعة الدكتور بليدسو مثلا أعلى له للارتقاء بمجتمعه من السود، ويسعى للسير على دربه. بعد مضي زمن قصير على الدراسة، يطلب المدير من الشاب كبادرة اعتزاز به أن يأخذ الثري والمساهم في تمويل الجامعة في جولة في أرجاء المنطقة المحيطة بالمبنى. وتصل الأحداث إلى ذروتها الأولى حينما يحيد الطالب عن الطريق ليجد نفسه في منطقة يسكنها الفقراء من السود، وحينما يحاول العودة يصر الثري على المتابعة كنوع من المغامرة . وفي حي هارلم الشعبي الخاص بالسود يستقر الشاب بعد أن وجد عملا أخيرا. وهنا تتصاعد ذروة الأحداث مجددا لدى عمله في معمل للطلاء وبعدها حينما ينضم لحزب ماركسي في ذات الحي، يقف في مواجهة حزب آخر، ويجد الشاب نفسه مركزا للصراع بين أفراد الحزبين. ويدرك من خلال مجمل الأحداث أنه غير مرئي كإنسان بالنسبة للجميع، فمنحة الثري تشعر صاحبها بعظمته الإنسانية، وطرد العميد له دون اعتبار لمستقبله، وأصدقائه من أعضاء الحزبين كانوا يتناحرون مع بعضهم من خلاله. ينتهي به الأمر باتخاذه القرار في العيش تحت الأرض غير مرئي، وكما ذكر في بداية الرواية يكتشف غرفة سرية في قبو مبنى مخصص للبيض كسكن له، ويزينها بما يزيد على 1369 مصباح كهربائي موزع بين السقف والأرض والجدران وذلك بعد أن مدد الكهرباء خلسة لغرفته، ليعيش قناعته في حقيقة أن النور هو الحقيقة وبالعكس. رشا المالح ralmaleh@albayan.ae الكتاب: الرجل الخفي |
Ralph Waldo Ellison (March 1, 1914[1] – April 16, 1994) was an American novelist, literary critic, scholar and writer. He was born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Ellison is best known for his novel Invisible Man, which won the National Book Award in 1953.[2] He also wrote Shadow and Act (1964), a collection of political, social and critical essays, and Going to the Territory (1986). Early lifeRalph Ellison, named after Ralph Waldo Emerson,[3] was born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, to Lewis Alfred Ellison and Ida Millsap. Research by Lawrence Jackson, one of Ellison's biographers, has established that he was born a year earlier than had been previously thought. He had one brother named Herbert Millsap Ellison, who was born in 1916. Lewis Alfred Ellison, a small-business owner and a construction foreman, died when Ralph was three years old from stomach ulcers he received from an ice-delivering accident.[3] Many years later, Ellison would find out that his father hoped he would grow up to be a poet. Writing careerIn 1933, Ellison entered the Tuskegee Institute on a scholarship to study music. Tuskegee's music department was perhaps the most renowned department at the school, headed by the conductor William L. Dawson. Ellison also had the good fortune to come under the close tutelage of the piano instructor Hazel Harrison. While he studied music primarily in his classes, he spent increasing amounts of time in the library, reading up on modernist classics. He specifically cited reading T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land as a major awakening moment for him. After his third year, Ellison moved to New York City to study the visual arts. He studied sculpture and photography. He made acquaintance with the artist Romare Bearden. Perhaps Ellison's most important contact would be with the author Richard Wright, with whom he would have a long and complicated relationship. After Ellison wrote a book review for Wright, Wright encouraged Ellison to pursue a career in writing, specifically fiction. The first published story written by Ellison was a short story entitled "Hymie's Bull," a story inspired by Ellison's hoboing on a train with his uncle to get to Tuskegee. From 1937 to 1944 Ellison had over twenty book reviews as well as short stories and articles published in magazines such as New Challenge and New Masses. Final yearsWright was then openly associated with the Communist Party and Ellison was publishing and editing for communist publications, although his "affiliation was quieter," according to historian Carol Polsgrove in Divided Minds.[4] Both Wright and Ellison lost their faith in the Communist Party during World War II when they felt the party had betrayed African Americans and replaced Marxist class politics with social reformism. In a letter to Wright, August 18, 1945, Ellison poured out his anger with party leaders: "If they want to play ball with the bourgeoisie they needn't think they can get away with it. ... Maybe we can't smash the atom, but we can, with a few well chosen, well written words, smash all that crummy filth to hell." In the wake of this disillusion, Ellison began writing Invisible Man, a novel that was, in part, his response to the party's betrayal.[5] World War II was nearing its end when Ellison, reluctant to serve in the segregated army, chose merchant marine service over the draft.[6] In 1946 he married his second wife, Fanny McConnell. She worked as a photographer to help sustain Ellison. From 1947 to 1951 he earned some money writing book reviews, but spent most of his time working on Invisible Man. Fanny also helped type Ellison's longhand text and assisted her husband in editing the typescript as it progressed. Published in 1952, Invisible Man explores the theme of man’s search for his identity and place in society, as seen from the perspective of an unnamed black man in the New York City of the 1930s. In contrast to his contemporaries such as Richard Wright and James Baldwin, Ellison created characters that are dispassionate, educated, articulate and self-aware. Through the protagonist, Ellison explores the contrasts between the Northern and Southern varieties of racism and their alienating effect. The narrator is "invisible" in a figurative sense, in that "people refuse to see" him, and also experiences a kind of dissociation. The novel, with its treatment of taboo issues such as incest and the controversial subject of communism, won the 1953 U.S. National Book Award for Fiction.[2] The award was his ticket into the American literary establishment. Disillusioned by his experience with the Communist Party, he used his new fame to speak out for literature as a moral instrument.[7] In 1955, Ellison went abroad to Europe to travel and lecture before settling for a time in Rome, Italy, where he wrote an essay that appeared in a Bantam anthology called A New Southern Harvest in 1957. Robert Penn Warren was in Rome during the same period and the two writers became close friends.[8] In 1958, Ellison returned to the United States to take a position teaching American and Russian literature at Bard College and to begin a second novel, Juneteenth. During the 1950s he corresponded with his lifelong friend, the writer Albert Murray. In their letters they commented on the development of their careers, the civil rights movement and other common interests including jazz. Much of this material was published in the collection Trading Twelves (2000). In 1964, Ellison published Shadow and Act, a collection of essays, and began to teach at Rutgers University and Yale University, while continuing to work on his novel. The following year, a survey of 200 prominent literary figures was released that proclaimed Invisible Man the most important novel since World War II. In 1967, Ellison experienced a major house fire at his home in Plainfield, Massachusetts, in which he claimed more than 300 pages of his second novel manuscript were lost. A perfectionist regarding the art of the novel, Ellison had said in accepting his National Book Award for Invisible Man that he felt he had made "an attempt at a major novel" and, despite the award, he was unsatisfied with the book.[9] Ellison ultimately wrote more than 2000 pages of this second novel but never finished it. Writing essays about both the black experience and his love for jazz music, Ellison continued to receive major awards for his work. In 1969 he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom; the following year, he was made a Chevalier of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by France and became a permanent member of the faculty at New York University as the Albert Schweitzer Professor of Humanities, serving from 1970 to 1980. In 1975, Ellison was elected to The American Academy of Arts and Letters and his hometown of Oklahoma City honored him with the dedication of the Ralph Waldo Ellison Library. Continuing to teach, Ellison published mostly essays, and in 1984, he received the New York City College's Langston Hughes Medal. In 1985, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts. In 1986, his Going to the Territory was published. This is a collection of seventeen essays that included insight into southern novelist William Faulkner and Ellison's friend Rich Wright, as well as the music of Duke Ellington and the contributions of African Americans to America’s national identity. In 1992, Ellison was awarded a special achievement award from the Anisfield-Wolf Book Awards. Ellison was also an accomplished sculptor, musician, photographer and college professor. He taught at Bard College, Rutgers University, the University of Chicago, and New York University. Ellison was also a charter member of the Fellowship of Southern Writers. Ralph Ellison died on April 16, 1994, of pancreatic cancer, and was buried at Trinity Church Cemetery[10] in the Washington Heights neighborhood of New York City. He was survived by his wife, Fanny Ellison, who died on November 19, 2005. After his death, more manuscripts were discovered in his home, resulting in the publication of Flying Home and Other Stories in 1996. In 1999, five years after his death, Ellison's second novel, Juneteenth, was published under the editorship of John F. Callahan, a professor at Lewis & Clark College and Ellison's literary executor. It was a 368-page condensation of more than 2000 pages written by Ellison over a period of forty years. All the manuscripts of this incomplete novel were published collectively on January 26, 2010, by Modern Library, under the title Three Days Before the Shooting.[11] |
Ralph Waldo Ellison was born March 1, 1914 in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma to Lewis Alfred and Ida Millsap Ellison. At the beginning of this century, Oklahoma had not been a state for very long and was still considered a part of the frontier. Lewis and Ida Ellison had each grown up in the South to parents who had been slaves. The couple moved out west to Oklahoma hoping the lives of their children would be fueled with a sense of possibility in this state that was reputed for its freedom. Though the prejudices of Texas and Arkansas soon encroached upon Oklahoma, the open spaces and fighting spirit of the people whom Ellison grew up among did provide him with a relatively unbiased atmosphere. The death of Lewis Ellison in 1917 left Ida, Ralph, and his younger brother Herbert quite poor. To support the family, Ida worked as a domestic and stewardess at the Avery Chapel Afro-Methodist Episcopal Church. The family moved into the parsonage and Ellison was brought into close contact with the minister's library. Literature was a destined medium for Ellison, whose father named him after Ralph Waldo Emerson and hoped that he would be a poet. His enthusiasm for reading was encouraged over the years of his youth by his mother bringing books and magazines home for him from the houses she cleaned. In addition, a black episcopal priest in the city challenged the white custom of barring blacks from the public library and the custom was overturned. Ellison's horizons were broadened to a world outside his own sheltered life in Oklahoma City, by the many books now available to him in the library. During his teenage years, Ellison and his friends imagined being the eclectic combination of frontiersmen and Renaissance Men. The ideal they created gave them the courage to expect anything out of life. They believed that they had the ability and power to do whatever they wanted in life as well as or better than men of any race. Ellison first used this credo when he attacked the medium of music, participating in an intense music program for twelve years at the Frederick Douglass School in Oklahoma City. Although he received musical training in many instruments as well as theory, he held a high preference for the trumpet and was talented enough to obtain training from the conductor of the Oklahoma City Orchestra. Ellison took part in playing at many concerts, marches, bands, and celebrations for the town. During the midst of this study, he did not lose sight of his desire to be a Renaissance Man, however, and spent time playing football, working at small jobs, and experimenting in electronics. In 1933, Ellison left Oklahoma and headed to the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama to study music, with the help of a scholarship he had won from the state of Oklahoma. One of his music teachers at the school was Hazel Harrison who would later introduce Ellison to Alain Locke, a New Negro thinker, who would lead Ellison to his writing career years later through connections to Langston Hughes and Richard Wright. At Tuskegee, Ellison excelled in his music program as well as taking a particular liking to his sociology and sculpture classes and the outside classroom which Alabama provided. Though not pleased with the desire of the state's people, black and white, to categorize him as he had never experienced at home, he did appreciate the chance to raise his own consciousness concerning the rest of the country he lived in. Literature would also influence his say at Tuskegee as he again delved into the expansive libraries at his disposal. T.S. Eliot's "The Waste Land," with its elusive lyricism would particularly influence him. Disappointed in the limited capacity of African-American literature at this point, Ellison practiced playing with the force of words as he had found Eliot to do. He would later use the experiences from Tuskegee and the injustices he encountered in the South to structure his writing of Invisible Man. Due to financial problems, Ellison left Tuskegee after his third year. Introduced to Augusta Savage, a black sculptor in Harlem who liked his work, Ellison moved to Harlem, New York in 1936, still hoping to be able to return to school. Ellison lived in New York for most of the rest of his life. One of New York's lures was its energy and reputation of energy and freedom. Ellison enjoyed living in Harlem as it was a tremendously vibrant cultural center in the 1930s and 1940s. After living there for a year, however, he was forced to leave for several months which he found very upsetting. His mother died, and he attended the funeral in Dayton, Ohio. The return to New York though was promising because of a meeting with Richard Wright, who would have a large literary influence on Ellison. This meeting along with his inability to find a steady job playing the trumpet led Ellison to immerse himself more in his writing. His first book review is published in New Challenge entitled "Creative and Cultural Lag." Soon after, as his literary style began to take form, he wrote his first short story, "Heine's Bull." It was not published. Although Ellison had a few writing successes, finding jobs and money was still extremely difficult during the Depression. Finally in 1938, Wright aided him in getting a job with the Federal Writers' Project. During this time, Ellison came into contact with many interesting interviewees from which he gleaned an interest in folklore and the distinctly African-American collection of rhymes, games, stories, and so on. The glimpse into personal lives enriched his knowledge of American culture and added to his stock of experiences learned in Oklahoma and Alabama. Much of his time was employed by the Project, but Ellison still found ways to submit materials to radical periodicals of the day, as influenced by the leftist Wright, such as Negro Quarterly, New Challenge, and New Masses. Between 1937 and 1944, he published over twenty book reviews. His reviews were often touched by a criticism of the lack in a "conscious protagonist" in order to embrace a text's political significance. This belief of Ellison's later led to his break with his beloved mentor, Richard Wright, as Ellison criticized the character of Bigger Thomas in Wright's masterpiece, Native Son. Still, the time Ellison wrote his reviews was very much a growing time for him. He published his first short stories, such as "Slick Gonna Learn", "The Birthmark", "King of the Bingo Game", and Flying Home". The early War years also gave Ellison the chance to edit Negro Quarterly and begin Invisible Man. Moving away from leftist politics and their champion, Wright, he also joins the Merchant Marine and many of his stories take on a wartime flair. In 1946, he marries Fanny McConnell. The quality of his writing reached masterful proportions by the end of World War II, as he had learned to incorporate the likes of Twain, Faulkner, Dostoevsky, and Hemingway into his work. His own voice arose in full power and in 1952 he published Invisible Man. The years following this great work are not as prolific as the ones preceding. Some even say that after the publication of Invisible Man, Ellison became nearly invisible himself. However, at the time of publication, Ellison was uncertain of its acceptance and said another novel was in the works in case the first was not a success. This novel was never needed to prove Ellison's skill and the only other one which he produces is left unfinished at the time of his death from cancer in 1994, partly because of a fire destroying over 300 pages of an earlier manuscript in 1967. However, Ellison was visible in certain arenas around the country during the many years between 1952 and 1994. He published two acclaimed books of essays, Shadow and Act and Going to the Territory. Ellison also received many awards for his masterpiece, Invisible Man, and for his overall career during the second half of his life. These honors include the National Book Award, Russwarm Award, and the election to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Lastly, Ellison spent a great deal of time teaching in various colleges. In 1970, he became the Albert Schweitzer Professor of Humanities at New York University. Ellison continued until the day he died spreading and cultivating his vision of America and art: the conscious protagonist and the use of blackness to break categories instead of sustaining them. |
African-American writer, teacher, whose novel Invisible Man (1952) gained a wide critical success. Ellison has been compared to such writers as Melville and Hawthorne. He has used racial issues to express universal dilemmas of identity and self-discovery but avoided taking a straightforward political stand. "Literature is colorblind," he once said. Many artists of the Black Arts movement rejected Ellison for his insistence that America be a land of cultural exchange and synergy. Talented in many fields, Ellison also was an accomplished jazz trumpeter and a free-lance photographer. "I am an invisible man. No, I am not a spook like those who haunted Edgar Allan Poe; nor am I one of your Hollywood-movie ectoplasms. I am a man of substance, of flesh and bone, fiber and liquids – and I might even be said to possess a mind. I am invisible, understand, simply because people refuse to see me." (from The Invisible Man, prologue) Ralph Waldo Ellison was born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Lewis Ellision, his father, named his son after the famous American poet and philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson, telling that he was "raising this boy up to be a poet." Lewis, who had spent his youth as a soldier and as an entrepreneur, was a vendor of ice and coal; he died accidentally. Ellison admired his father greatly, seeing him as a hero. His mother, Ida Ellison, supported herself and her children by working as a domestic. Ida, whom close friends called "Brownie," belived in Socialism and was arrested several times for violating the segregation orders. ==While growing up, Ellison began performing on the trumpet during high school years. Among his friends were the blues singer Jimmy Rushing and trumpeter Hot Lips Page. With the help of a music scolarship, Ellision studied at the Tuskegee Institute in Macon County, Alabama (1933-1936). However, the atmospere in Tuskegee was conservative and jazz was considered primitive. Ellision dropped out to pursue a career in the visual arts. Ellison moved to New York City to study sculpture, but again abandoned his plans when a change meetings with Langston Hughes and Richard Wright led him to join Federal Writers' Project. He had earlier read the works of Ernest Hemingway, George Bernard Shaw, and T.S. Eliot, which impressed him deeply. Encouraged by Richard Wright he started to write essays, reviews and short stories for various periodicals. Ellison's stories appeared in New Masses and other publications. He became an editor of the Negro Quaterly and started to work on his novel. From 1943 to 1945 Ellison served from 1943 to 1945 in the Merchant Marines as a cook, and wrote the first line of Invisible Man after the war ended. In 1946 he married his live-in partner Fanny McConnell Buford. During the 1940s, she worked as a secretary at the Astoria Press, the Parish Press and the Liberal Press. Her steady income secured the creation of Invisible Man. The early version of the novel started with a story about a black American pilot who is in a Nazi prisoner-of-war camp, but soon Ellison found a more complex theme. "Once the book was done, it was suggested that the title would be confused with H.G. Wells's old novel, The Invisible Man, but I fought to keep my title because that's what the book was about.'' (Ellison in The New York Times, March 1, 1982) Invisible Man (1952) tells a story of a nameless Afro-American man, who is losing his sense of identity in a world of prejudice and hostility. He has an underground cellar to solve his relationship with the rest of the society. In the dark there is no colors and to fill the space with light he burns 1,369 bulbs. Before becoming free from all illusions, the narrator makes a feverish, Dantesque journey through his experiences in a segregated community in South to the North. With the prologue's theme song, 'What Did I Do to Be So Black and Blue,' Ellison suggests that jazz might represent a fusion of different cultural influences in American society, but it also serves as a key to the mind of the narrator. Education and class consciousness do not help him in his despair but adds to his difficulties. Finally he is ready to enter the world and says: "Who knows but that, on the lower frequencies, I speak for you?" Invisible Man was rewarded with National Book Award in 1953. It was considered in 1965 in an inquiry of 200 authors and critics among the most important works after World War II. Ellison insisted that he wrote the novel thinking not of its sociological insights into injustice, but strictly of the art of writing. He was deeply interested in the works of Russian authors, with the most obvious influence being Feodor Dostoevskii's Notes from the Underground, and its parallel 'The Man Who Lived Underground' by Richard Wright. But unlike Dostoevskii's protagonist, Ellison's hero is not ready to yield and retire, he is not an outsider and his retreat is only temporary. After Invisible Man, Ellison never published another novel but two collections of essays, Shadow and Act (1964) and Going to the Territory (1986). He had more and more trouble meeting deadlines for even small jobs. Drinking too much, he suffered often from hangovers. Around 1950, Ellison discovered a new passion in his life: building sound equipment. "He was always for anything new," one of his friends recalled, "and he loved gadgets and devices and machines. He would stop his writing in a second if there was something fresh to explore in science or technology." Ellison's pieces on jazz drew on his experience as a musician and advocated the idea that in modern society musical traditions blend rapidly with each other. In a writing published in High Fidelity (1955) Ellison remarked that "The step from the spirituality of the spirituals to that of the Beethoven of the symphonies or the Bach of the chorales is not as vast as it seems." Ellison lectured widely at various American colleges and universities, including Bard, Columbia, Rutgers, Yale, Chicago, and New York University, where he was Albert Schweitzer professor in the Humanites. Among Ellison's several awards are the Medal of Freedom (1969), Chevalier de l'Ordre des Artes et Lettres (1970). He received a fellowship to the National American Academy of Arts and Letters in Rome (1955-57), and was elected a vice-president of the American P.E.N. (1964), and a vice-president of the National Institute of Arts and Letters (1967). Ellison received in 1985 National Medal of Arts for Invisible Man and for his teaching at numerous universities. Ellison's second novel, Juneteenth (1999), was planned as a trilogy, but was left unfinished at his death. Ellison's short stories were collected in Flying Home and Other Stories (1996). In 'A Party Down at the Square,' which did not appear during his lifetime, Ellison tells about lynching, using a young white boy as the narrator. 'Flying Home' was an Icarus story about a black aviator, whose plane has crashed in Georgia. 'King of the Bingo Game' proved wrong the claim that an unemployed black can win the jacpot if he gets the lucky number In Shadow and Act Ellison stated that "one of the obligations I took when I committed myself to the art and form of the novel was that of striving for the broadest range, the discovery and articulation of the most exalted values." Ellison died in New York, on April 16, 1994, of pancreatic cancer. The posthumously published Juneteenth focused on two opposite characters: Adam Sunraider, a white, bigoted New England senator, and Alonzo "Daddy" Hickman, a black Baptist minister, former jazzman. When Hickman first tries to meet Sunraider, the Senators secretary stops him: '"Knows you," she said indignantly. "I've heard Senator Sunraider state that the only colored he knows is the boy who shines shoes at his golf club."' However, the two opposites turn out to have a paternal relationship. When Sunraider is shot, he summons Hickman to his bedside, which starts an exploration of their shared past. Ellison spent years reconstructing the novel, after a large section of the original work burned in 1967. Ellison's manuscript, some 2,000 pages, was edited by John Callahan. إليسون - رالف(1914م-1994م). كاتب أمريكي أسود، اسمه رالف والدو إليسون ، ولد في مدينة أوكلاهوما. واشتهر بروايته الرجل الخفي (1952م)، والتي يكشف من خلالها عن المشكلات التي كان يتعرض لها السود في بحثهم عن الكرامة والمساواة والمكانة اللائقة في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية. وهي تحكي قصة أحد السود من الولايات الجنوبية، كان يسعى إلى مكانة لائقة في المجتمع. كان يسمح للآخرين بتحديد دوره ومكانته. وفي الجنوب كان يقوم بذلك جده ووالداه والقادة البيض فقط، ولكن بعد طرده من كلية السود، ذهب إلى الشمال. وهناك سمع عن مفاهيم جديدة تحدد دوره في المجتمع، من الوطنيين السود ودعاة الشيوعية. ولكن كل هذه المفاهيم والمبادئ خيبت أمله. وخلال أعمال شغب قرر التخلي عن ذلك كله، وأدرك أن عليه استعمال عقله وماورثه من ثقافة لكي يطور مفاهيمه الخاصة عن دوره في الحياة. والرواية عمل معقد يستعمل فيه إليسون رموزاً لتدل على مفاهيم عديدة. أحد هذه المفاهيم أن الأمريكيين البيض يرفضون "النظر" إلى السود باعتبارهم أفرادًا رئيسيين في المجتمع الأمريكي، ولذا فإن السود يصبحون "غير مرئيين". ومن ناحية أخرى يقترح إليسون أن على كل الأمريكيين أن يناضلوا حتى لا تضيع إنسانيتهم. تتضمن كتابات إليسون عددًا من القصص القصيرة. كما نشر مجموعتين من الروايات وأعمالاً أخرى منها: الظل والعمل (1964م)؛ في الطريق إلى الأقاليم (1986م). رالف السون - لا شك انه عانى من العنصرية لكن الاهم انه فقد والده وهو صغير. - من مواليد عام 1914 - مات ابوه عام 1917 من حادث سقوط كوب ثلج كبير عليه وهو يعمل وكان حينها السون ينظر اليه . يتيم الا ب في سن الثالثة. |
by Denis Diderot, France, (1713-1784) 'Your Jacques is a tasteless mishmash of things that happen, some of them true, others made up, written without style and served up like a dog's breakfast.' Jacques the Fatalist is Diderot's answer to the problem of existence. If human beings are determined by their genes and their environment, how can they claim to be free to want or do anything? Where are Jacques and his Master going? Are they simply occupying space, living mechanically until they die, believing erroneously that they are in charge of their Destiny? Diderot intervenes to cheat our expectations of what fiction should be and do, and behaves like a provocative, ironic and unfailingly entertaining master of revels who finally show why Fate is not to be equated with doom. In the introduction to this brilliant new translation, David Coward explains the philosophical basis of Diderot's fascination with Fate and shows why Jacques the Fatalist pioneers techniques of fiction which, two centuries on, novelists still regard as experimental. ABOUT THE SERIES: For over 100 years Oxford World's Classics has made available the widest range of literature from around the globe.Each affordable volume reflects Oxford's commitment to scholarship, providing the most accurate text plus a wealth of other valuable features, including expert introductions by leading authorities, helpful notes to clarify the text, up-to-date bibliographies for further study, and much more. == Jacques the Fatalist and his Master (French: Jacques le fataliste et son maître) is a novel by Denis Diderot, written during the period 1765-1780. The first French edition was published posthumously in 1796, but it was known earlier in Germany, thanks to Schiller's partial translation, which appeared in 1785 and was retranslated into French in 1793, as well as Mylius's complete German version of 1792.The main subject of the book is the relationship between the valet Jacques and his master, who is never named. The two are traveling to a destination the narrator leaves vague, and to dispel the boredom of the journey Jacques is compelled by his master to recount the story of his loves. However, Jacques's story is continually interrupted by other characters and various comic mishaps. Other characters in the book tell their own stories and they, too, are continually interrupted. There is even a "reader" who periodically interrupts the narrator with questions, objections, and demands for more information or detail. The tales told are usually humorous, with romance or sex as their subject matter, and feature complex characters indulging in deception. Literary significance & criticismJacques's key philosophy is that everything that everything that happens to us down here, whether for good or for evil, has been written up above" ("tout ce qui nous arrive de bien et de mal ici-bas était écrit là-haut"), on a "great scroll" that is unrolled a little bit at a time. Yet Jacques still places value on his actions and is not a passive character. Critics such as J. Robert Loy have characterized Jacques's philosophy as not fatalism but determinism.[1] The book is full of contradictory characters and other dualities. One story tells of two men in the army who are so much alike that, though they are the best of friends, they cannot stop dueling and wounding each other. Another concerns Father Hudson, an intelligent and effective reformer of the church who is privately the most debauched character in the book. Even Jacques and his master transcend their apparent roles, as Jacques proves, in his insolence, that his master cannot live without him, and therefore it is Jacques who is the master and the master who is the servant. The story of Jacques's loves is lifted directly from Tristram Shandy, which Diderot makes no secret of, as the narrator at the end announces the insertion of an entire passage from Tristram Shandy into the story. Throughout the work, the narrator refers derisively to sentimental novels and calls attention to the ways in which events develop more realistically in his book. At other times, the narrator tires of the tedium of narration altogether and obliges the reader to supply certain trivial details. The critical reception of the book has been mixed. French critics of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries dismissed it as derivative of Rabelais and Sterne, as well as unnecessarily bawdy. It made a better impression on the German Romantics, who had had the opportunity to read it before their French counterparts did (as outlined above). Schiller held it in high regard and recommended it strongly to Goethe, who also enjoyed it. Friedrich Schlegel referred to it positively in his critical fragments (3, 15) and in the Athaneum fragments (201). It formed something of an ideal of Schlegel's concept of wit. Stendhal, while acknowledging flaws in Jacques, nevertheless considered it a superior and exemplary work. In the twentieth century, critics such as Leo Spitzer and J. Robert Loy tended to see Jacques as a key work in the tradition of Cervantes and Rabelais, focused on celebrating diversity rather than providing clear answers to philosophical problems. == Denis Diderot (1713-1784) was among the greatest writers of the Enlightenment, and in "Jacques the Fatalist", he brilliantly challenged the artificialities of conventional French fiction of his age. Riding through France with his master, the servant Jacques appears to act as though he is truly free in a world of dizzying variety and unpredictability. Characters emerge and disappear as the pair travel across the country, and tales begin and are submerged by greater stories, to reveal a panoramic view of eighteenth-century society. But, while Jacques seems to choose his own path, he remains convinced of one philosophical belief: that every decision he makes, however whimsical, is wholly predetermined. Playful, picaresque and comic, Diderot's novelis a compelling exploration of Enlightment philosophy. Brilliantly original in style, it is one of the greatest precursors to post-modern literature. |
Denis Diderot Life and death</SPAN>(French: [dəni didʁo]) (October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer. He was a prominent person during the Enlightenment and is best known for serving as co-founder and chief editor of and contributor to the Encyclopédie along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert. Diderot also contributed to literature, notably with Jacques le fataliste et son maître (Jacques the Fatalist and his Master), which emulated Laurence Sterne in challenging conventions regarding novels and their structure and content, while also examining philosophical ideas about free will. Diderot is also known as the author of the dialogue, Le Neveu de Rameau (Rameau's Nephew), upon which many articles and sermons about consumer desire have been based. Denis Diderot was born in Langres, Champagne, and began his formal education at the jesuitic Collège jésuite in Langres. Early works</SPAN>His parents were Didier Diderot (1675–1759) a cutler, maître coutelier and his wife Angélique Vigneron (1677–1748). Three of five siblings survived to adulthood, Denise Diderot (1715–1797) and their youngest brother Pierre-Didier Diderot (1722–1787), and finally their sister Angélique Diderot (1720–1749). In 1732 he earned a master of arts degree in philosophy. Then he entered the Collège d'Harcourt in Paris. He abandoned the idea of entering the clergy and decided instead to study law. - His study of law was short-lived however and in 1734 Diderot decided to become a writer. - Because of his refusal to enter one of the learned professions, he was disowned by his father, and for the next ten years he lived a bohemian existence. In 1742 he befriended Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Then in 1743 he further alienated his father by marrying Antoinette Champion (1710–1796), a devout Roman Catholic. The match was considered inappropriate due to Champion's low social status, poor education, fatherless status and lack of a dowry. - She was about three years older than Diderot. - The marriage, in October 1743 produced one surviving child, a girl. Her name was Angélique, after both Diderot's dead mother and sister. - The death of his sister, a nun, from overwork in the convent may have affected Diderot's opinion of religion. She is assumed to have been the inspiration for his novel about a nun, La Religieuse, in which he depicts a woman who is forced to enter a monastery where she suffers at the hands of the other nuns in the community. Diderot had affairs with the writer Madeleine de Puisieux and with Sophie Volland (1716-1784). His letters to Sophie Volland contain some of the most vivid of all the insights that we have of the daily life of the philosophic circle of Paris during this time period. Though his work was broad and rigorous, it did not bring Diderot riches. He secured none of the posts that were occasionally given to needy men of letters; he could not even obtain the bare official recognition of merit which was implied by being chosen a member of the Académie française. When the time came for him to provide a dowry for his daughter, he saw no alternative than to sell his library. When Catherine II of Russia heard of his financial troubles she commissioned an agent in Paris to buy the library. She then requested that the philosopher retain the books in Paris until she required them, and act as her librarian with a yearly salary. From 1773 for two years Diderot spent some months at the empress's court in Saint Petersburg. Diderot died of gastrointestinal problems in Paris on July 31, 1784, and was buried in the city's Église Saint-Roch. His heirs sent his vast library to Catherine II, who had it deposited at the National Library of Russia. Diderot's earliest works included a translation of Temple Stanyan's History of Greece (1743); with two colleagues, François-Vincent Toussaint and Marc-Antoine Eidous, he produced a translation of Robert James's Medicinal Dictionary[1] (1746–1748); at about the same time he published a free rendering of Shaftesbury's Inquiry Concerning Virtue and Merit (1745), with some original notes of his own. In 1746 he wrote his first original work: the Pensées philosophiques,[2] and he added to this a short complementary essay on the sufficiency of natural religion. He then composed a volume of bawdy stories Les bijoux indiscrets (1748); in later years he repented this work. In 1747 he wrote the Promenade du sceptique, an allegory pointing first at the extravagances of Catholicism; second, at the vanity of the pleasures of the world which is the rival of the church; and third, at the desperate and unfathomable uncertainty of the philosophy which professes to be so high above both church and world. Diderot's celebrated Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient ("Letter on the Blind") (1749), introduced him to the world as a daringly original thinker. The subject is a discussion of the interrelation between man's reason and the knowledge acquired through perception (the five senses). The title, "Letter on the Blind For the Use of Those Who See", also evoked some ironic doubt about who exactly were "the blind" under discussion. In the essay a blind English mathematician named Saunderson argues that since knowledge derives from the senses, then mathematics is the only form of knowledge that both he and a sighted person can agree about. It is suggested that the blind could be taught to read through their sense of touch (a later essay, Lettre sur les sourds et muets, considered the case of a similar deprivation in the deaf and mute). What makes the Lettre sur les aveugles so remarkable, however, is its distinct, if undeveloped, presentation of the theory of variation and natural selection.[3] This powerful essay ... revolves around a remarkable deathbed scene in which a dying blind philosopher, Saunderson, rejects the arguments of a providential God during his last hours. Saunderson's arguments are those of a Neo-Spinozist, Naturalist, and Fatalist, using a sophisticated notion of the self-generation and natural evolution of species without Creation or supernatural intervention. The notion of "thinking matter" is upheld and the "argument from design" discarded ... as hollow and unconvincing. The work appeared anonymously ... and was vigorously suppressed by the authorities. Diderot, who had been under police surveillance since 1747, was swiftly identified as the author ... and was imprisoned for some months at Vincennes, where he was visited almost daily by Rousseau, at the time his closest and most assiduous ally.[4] After signing a letter of submission and promising never to write anything prejudicial against the religion again (with the result that his most controversial works were henceforth published only after his death), Diderot was released from the dungeons of the Vincennes fortress after three months. In collaboration with d'Alembert, he subsequently embarked on his greatest project, The Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. == |
Denis Diderot - Biography
Denis Diderot (October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic and writer. Born at Langres and was schooled by Jesuits. He attended the University of Paris and was awarded a masters of art degree. An avid reader of classics like Horace and Homer, Diderot's insatiable appetite for reading and literature also extended to women, thereby disappointing his father who had hoped he would continue on into medicine or law. Instead, Diderot lived the life of a bohemian, bouncing from tutorships, freelance writing gigs also working at one time for Clement de Ris a prominent attorney and as a bookseller's hack. By 1743 he married Anne Toinette Champion although the relationship did not prosper and Diderot found a new love, Madeleine de Puisieux a fellow writer. It was in the 1740s that he also became a translator of English books which began to gain him some notoriety. Diderot is most recognized as the force behind the Encyclopédie, the foremost encyclopedia to be published in France at the eve of the French Revolution, but he also published a other works, comedies and bawdy tales as well as to assist his friend Friedrich Grimm in his collection of tales. Before the monumental task of putting together the Encyclopédie, Diderot became known for Essai sur la merite et la virtu (1745) and then the publication of Pensees philosophique (1746), a work that both atheism and Christianity alike but was still burned by the Parisian parliament. He also gained interest for his support of John Locke's theory of knowledge in his Lettres sur les aveugles (1749) where he attacked conventional morality and as a result was imprisoned at Vincennes for three months. His network of friends included Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Claude Adrien Helvétius, Abbé Raynal, Lawrence Sterne, Jean-François Marmontel, and Michel-Jean Sedaine. In 1747, the project of what would become the massive Encyclopédie was initially offered up to Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (a mathematician who eventually dropped out of the project) as a chance to co-edit the French translation of Chamber's Cyclopedia, or Universal Dictionary of the Arts and Science, but they were disenchanted with the material in the tome and preferred to set out to compile their own encyclopedia. The Encyclopédie was finally published in 1750s but the first edition of Encyclopédie was greatly amended by the editor, Andre Le Breton, (to Diderot's dismay) due to concerns about its content and the second full edition. This massive set of volumes at the time of publication were sold by subscription to not only wealthy individuals but they were also bought by small private libraries that gave access to the public, perhaps for a small fee. The impact of the Encyclopédie was widespread in France and Europe at large for by 1789 more than 25,000 copies had been distributed. There was talk about a distribution center in the United States through Benjamin Franklin, but there is no evidence that this came through. What Diderot accomplished was to create one of the most important books of the Eighteenth Century. For Diderot along with his contributors, the common purpose of which was "to further knowledge and, by so doing, strike a resounding blow against reactionary forces in church and state." How Diderot imagined this happening was by providing educational materials on technologies for what Proust broke down into three goals: "(a) to reach a large public; (b) to encourage research at all stages of production; and (c) to publish all the secrets of manufacturing." By researching trades and breaking down their application and uses, the makers of the Encyclopédie hoped to propel liberal economic views rather than mercantilist system that had been in place protecting guilds and craftsmen. We can see the effects of the philosophy that drove the work, one of rationalism and "faith in progress of the human mind" at play in the French Revolution, hence the towering importance of this tome. What this comes down to in the Encyclopédie itself is intellectual work, that of curating and explaining the different jobs, crafts, or otherwise known to the writers as mechanical arts. While this was not the sole concern for entries for such inquires as natural sciences were included, the largest proportion of the 2,900 plates were dedicated to technology. D'Alembert writes in the "Preliminary Discourse of the Encyclopedia" that "The discovery of the compass is no less advantageous to the human race than the explanation of the properties of the compass needle is to physics." This is first noticeable in the book by the fold out page that lays out the structure of the Encyclopédie. Following Bacon's lead, Diderot broke down human faculties by memory, reason and imagination, corresponding them to history, philosophy and poetry. In his Aristotelian diagram, a reader can see that the most worked out of these is reason and the mechanical arts and while history and poetry are present, the focus of the Encyclopédie was to explicate varying technologies as to make them understood by anyone. Also concerning the breakdown of knowledge in this diagram, it is important to note that while this organization of information was paid a great deal of attention, the articles in the Encyclopédie were still laid out alphabetically for ease of use; their category of knowledge would then be shown next to its heading. The most important way in which Diderot was able to make clear the workings of technologies within a craft or mechanical art was by supplementing the text with engravings of the tools used. It is from these engravings that we can see the beginnings of modern technological and mechanical instruction. For example, the section on agriculture represents not only a pastoral scene of hills and people in the fields, but also shows a catalog of the machinery used to do the work. The implements are not illustrated in use, but lined up categorically. Many of the plates that show technology represent the elements of each in a similar fashion although those that show the details of a craft usually show an overview of a shop in lieu of the workers in the fields. This type of explication of craft was received by some with fear that with secrets unveiled, people would lose their jobs, but Diderot writes in his Prospectus that "It is handicraft which makes the artist, and it is not in Books that one can learn to manipulate." This was part of the reason that Diderot had such problems with Chamber's Encyclopedia, for he thought Chambers was too stuck in books and hence Diderot's emphasis that his contributors visit the shops and study particular mechanical arts in depth before writing about them. The material chosen to include in the Encyclopédie and the engravings that accompany them is enough to prove it to be a groundbreaking work, but there is another element that is of particular interest to contemporary scholars. This element is the renvois which in old French means to send back. Today we are most familiar with this concept as labeled "hyperlink" and it has its basis in the Encyclopédie. For instance, in the article "Agriculture" there is a place when the reader is directed to an article on leaves to learn more about pruning." In a 2009 article concerning this fact, Michael Zimmer argues that this is not any different than so-called new media, the Internet and its applications based on hypertext and hyperlink for these connections "[allow] readers to relinquish their position as passive receivers of preorganized information, to subvert traditional knowledge structures and hierarchies, and to become active and integral participants in the production of knowledge." So while the Encyclopédie attempted to structure thought into memory, imagination and reason which was revolutionary in itself in that it explicated previously privileged information, it was also laying the groundwork for the revolutions in thought that we undergo today. At the time, however, Diderot was not able to make much of a living off of the Encyclopédie and long-time friend, Grimm appealed to Catherine of Russia who bought his library in 1765 as well as to provide him with a salary and use of the library as long as he lived. He continued to be a source of inspiration for the French revolution as Saint-Beuve remarked, "the first great writer who belonged wholly and undividedly to modern democratic society." He died of emphysema in Paris in 1784. |
French philosopher, and man of letters, the chief editor of the L'Encyclopédie, one of the principal literary monuments of the Age of Enlightenment. The work took 26 years of Diderot's life. In seventeen volumes of text and eleven of illustrations, it presented the achievements of human learning in a single work. Besides offering a summary of information on all theoretical knowledge, it also challenged the authority of the Catholic Church. "The good of the people must be the great purpose of government. By the laws of nature and of reason, the governors are invested with power to that end. And the greatest good of the people is liberty. It is to the state what health is to the individual." (from L'Encyclopédie) Denis Diderot was born at Langres, the son of a successful cutler. He was first educated by the Jesuits (1728-32). During this period he devoured books of all kinds – his favorites were such classics as Horace and Homer. In 1732 Diderot received the master of arts degree from the University of Paris. His father expected him to study medicine or law, but Diderot spent his time with books and women. When his financial support was ended, Diderot then worked for the attorney Clément de Ris (1732-34), and as a tutor, freelance writer, and bookseller's hack (1733-44). After ten bohemian years, he married in 1743 Anne Toinette Champion. To support his own family, he began to translate texts from English to France. After some years his marriage turned sour. When his wife said she would not touch a book which did not offer something spiritually uplifting, Diderot's remedy was to read her only raunchy works. "What amuses me is," Diderot confessed in a letter, "that she treats everyone who visits her to a repeat of what I have just read her, so conversation doubles the effect of the remedy. Diderot found also a new love, Madeleine de Puisieux. She was a writer, whose best work, Les caractères (1750-51), appeared during their affair. With Sophie Volland Diderot had a liaison from about 1755 until her death in 1784. Diderot's letters to her belong to the important sources of his personal life and reveal ways of thinking in that era. "It has been said that love robs those who have it of their wit, and gives it to those who have none." (Paradoxe sur le comédien) -دو ان اهم الاحداث التي اثرت فيه هو موت اخته الراهبة بسبب سوء معاملة الراهبات لها. تخلى عنه والده بسبب رفضه دراسة الطب او القانون, - عاش حياة الصعاليك لمدرة عشر سنوات بسبب تخلي والده عنه. - يبدو ان موت والدته كان له اثر كبير ايضا على شخصه. مأزوم ويتيم اجتماعي بسبب تخلي والده عنه. يتيم اجتماعي. |
Journey to the End of the Night by Louis-Ferdinand Celine, France, (1894-1961) Told in the first person, the novel is based on the author's own experiences during the First World War, in French colonial Africa, in the USA - where he worked for a while at the Ford factory in Detroit - and later as a young doctor in a working-class suburb in Paris. Celine's disgust with human folly, malice, greed and the chaotic state in which man has left society lies behind the bitterness that distinguishes his idiosyncratic, colloquial and visionary writing and gives it its force. == Journey to the End of Night (Voyage au bout de la nuit, 1932) is the first novel of Louis-Ferdinand Céline. This semi-autobiographical work describes antihero Ferdinand Bardamu. Bardamu is involved with World War I, colonial Africa, and post-World War I America (where he works for the Ford Motor Company), returning in the second half of the work to France, where he becomes a medical doctor and establishes a practice in a poor Paris suburb, the fictional La Garenne-Rancy. The novel also satirizes the medical profession and the vocation of scientific research. The disparate elements of the work are linked together by recurrent encounters with Léon Robinson, a hapless character whose experiences parallel, to some extent, those of Bardamu. Voyage au bout de la nuit is a nihilistic novel of savage, exultant misanthropy, combined, however, with cynical humour. Céline expresses an almost unrelieved pessimism with regard to human nature, human institutions, society, and life in general. Towards the end of the book, the narrator Bardamu, who is working at an insane asylum, remarks: …I cannot refrain from doubting that there exist any genuine realizations of our deepest character except war and illness, those two infinities of nightmare," ("…je ne peux m'empêcher de mettre en doute qu'il existe d'autres véritables réalisations de nos profonds tempéraments que la guerre et la maladie, ces deux infinis du cauchemar,") A clue to understanding Celine's Voyage is the trauma he suffered during his experience of the Great War 1914-1918. This is revealed by a study of biographical and literary research on Celine, histories of the war, diaries of his cavalry regiment, and literature on the trauma of war. [1] Celine's experience of the war leads to "…the obsession, the recurrent anguish, the refusal, the delirium, the violence, the pacifism, the anti-Semitic aberration of the 30’s, [and] his philosophy of life . . . ."[2] Literary style Céline's first novel is most remarkable perhaps for its style. Céline makes extensive use of ellipsis and hyperbole. He writes with the flow of natural speech patterns and writes vernacular, while also employing more erudite elements. This influenced French literature considerably. The novel enjoyed popular success and a fair amount of critical acclaim when it was published during October 1932. Albert Thibaudet, perhaps the greatest of the entre-deux-guerres critics, said that during January 1933 it was still a common topic of conversation at dinner parties in Paris (Henri Godard, "Notice," in Céline, Romans, vol. 1 [Paris: Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1981], p. 1262). Influence and legacyWill Self has written that Journey to the End of the Night "is the novel, perhaps more than any other, that inspired me to write fiction".[3] ==The song End of the Night by The Doors references this book, as it had a great influence on the work of Jim Morrison Kurt Vonnegut cited Journey as one of his influences in Palm Sunday, and Bardamu's misadventures appear to have influenced Joseph Heller's Catch-22. Charles Bukowski makes reference to Journey in a number of his novels and short stories, and employs prose techniques borrowed from Céline. Bukowski wrote in Notes of a Dirty Old Man that "Céline was the greatest writer of 2000 years."[4] The Xiu Xiu song "F.T.W." references the book. The Charlotte Gainsbourg song "Voyage" also references the book's French and English titles. In Jean-Luc Godard's 1965 dystopian science fiction film Alphaville, protagonist Lemmy Caution dismisses a taxi driver's offer of route options to his destination by stating that he is on "a journey to the end of the night". The film depicts the use of poetry as a weapon against a sentient computer system. Italian film director Sergio Leone was a fan of the novel and was considering a film adaptation in the 1960s. The poem inspired the Israeli singer and songwriter Aya Korem to write a song called "Tania". It is a sad yet satirical song, and Journey is credited in the liner notes of the album. The title of noise/punk band Heroine Sheiks' 2008 release Journey to the Edge of the Knife is a reference to the novel. The movie Bringing out the Dead by Martin Scorsese contains a scene showing the book on a shelf in Frank Pierce's home. The movie In the House by François Ozon contains a scene showing the book lied on a rug. Brooklyn-based hardcore punk band Swallowed Up included a spoken sample of text from the novel on a track from their 2010 split LP with Black Kites. سفر إلى آخر الليل من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة سفر إلى آخر الليل هي الرواية الأولى للويس فرديناند سيلين. هذا العمل شبه سيرة ذاتية يصف الشخصية الرئيسية فرديناند باردامو. المقدمة ربما لم يهاجم أحد فكر لويس - فرديناند سيلين، بقدر ما هاجمه ثلاثي دي بوفوار - سارتر - ألبير كامو. فهو، المفكر والكاتب الفوضوي اليميني- الذي لم يتورع عن مناصرة النازيين خلال الثلاثينات والاربعينات، في شكل أو في آخر- كان يمثل بالنسبة إلى الثلاثي التقدمي، اليساري إلى حد ما، قمة التخلف الفكري في المواقف السياسية. ومع هذا كان سارتر يحب ان يقول انه كثيرا ما فكر بشخصية سيلينية، هي شخصية باردامو فيما كان منكبا على كتابة «الغثيان»، كما ان كامو لم يخف ابدا تأثره بالشخصية نفسها حين كتب «الغريب». اما سيمون دي بوفوار فحسبنا لتبين موقفها الحقيقي، الادبي بخاصة، من سيلين ان ننقل ما كتبته في مذكراتها عنه: «... لقد كنا في ذلك الحين نقرأ كل ما يصدر من كتب: اما الكتاب الفرنسي الذي كان ذا القيمة الأكبر بالنسبة الينا فكان، خلال ذلك العام «سفر إلى آخر الليل» لسيلين... حيث كنا نحفظ بعض مقاطع الكتاب غيبا. ذلك ان فوضى سيلين كانت تبدو بالنسبة الينا، شديدة القرب من نزعتنا الفوضوية... وهو أيضا كان يهاجم الحرب والكولونيالية والتفاهة والافكار السائدة... كان يهاجم المجتمع بأسلوب وبنغمة يفتناننا. في ذلك الحين كان سيلين صاغ اداة جديدة: كتابة لها حيوية الكلام العادي (...). وهذه الكتابة هي التي جعلت سارتر يتخلى نهائيا عن اللغة المفخمة التي كان يستخدمها من قبل». القصةاذا، لئن كان كتّاب فرنسا التقدميون في ذلك الحين اوسعوا سيلين شتما ونقدا بسبب مواقفه السياسية، فإن هذا لم يمنعهم ابدا من أن يضعوا روايته «سفر إلى آخر الليل»، وهي الرواية نفسها التي يشكل باردامو شخصيتها الرئيسة، في مكانها الصحيح، كرواية رائدة ينظر إليها الجميع على انها واحدة من اروع الروايات الفرنسية التي كتبت خلال النصف الأول من القرن العشرين، بل واحدة من أكبر الروايات الأوروبية، إلى جانب «يوليس» جويس، و«الرجل البلا مزايا» لروبرت موتسيل، وحتى «البحث عن الزمن الضائع» لبروست. ورواية «سفر إلى آخر الليل»، كانت أول رواية طويلة نشرها سيلين خلال مساره المهني، وكان ذلك في العام 1932 حيث نالت على الفور جائزة «رينودو». وهو استوحاها، على رغم طابعها الروائي الخالص، من ذكريات حياته وبعض مغامراته، خلال الحرب العالمية الأولى مضيفا إليها معرفته بالقارة الأفريقية حيث كان اكتشف مبكرا «مساوئ الكولونيالية»، إضافة إلى نظرته المبكرة إلى الولايات المتحدة التي رأى في مسيرتها انتصارا كبيرا لقيمة العمل وللرأسمالية. ناهيك، أخيرا، بتجربته الخاصة كطبيب في الضواحي. ولم تكن «سفر إلى آخر الليل» الرواية الوحيدة التي استعان سيلين، على كتابتها، بتجاربه أو ذكرياته الشخصية، إذ تجمع الدراسات التي تتناول سيلين، كذلك، ان الاوساط التي امضى فيها طفولته ومراهقته (اوساط البورجوازية الصغيرة من تجّار وموظفين) شكلت خلفية روايته التالية "موت بالتقسيط"، كما ان «الأغطيـة الجميلة» تعالج هزيمة فرنسا في العام 1939 كما عاشها هو شخصيا، فيما نجد ان تجربته في العيش في لندن، حيث انتدب لفترة عاش خلالها بعض أكثر سنوات حياته مرحا خلال الاعوام الأولى للحرب العالمية الأولى، شكلت خلفية روايتيه «عصابة المهرج» و«جسر لندن». إن هذا كله يؤكد - بالطبع - ذاتية سيلين في كتابته الروائية. غير ان هذا الجانب الذاتي يظل الأكثر طغيانا في « سفر إلى آخر الليل»، إذ ان الرواية مبنية اصلا، وفي الجزء الأساس منها على تجربته حين عمل في القسم الطبي في مندوبية عصبة الأمم في ألمانيا فترة، هي التي قادته لاحقا بالتأكيد إلى ذلك الموقف المهادن للنازيين، أو حتى، المناصر لهم، والذي ظل لعنة احاطت به في وطنه فرنسا، حتى رحيله. وهو إذ عاد من ألمانيا - في حياته الخاصة كما في الرواية - عمل طبيبا في ضاحية كليشي، شمال غربي باريس، والتي كانت تعد في ذلك الحين، خلال الربع الأول من القرن العشرين، ضاحية البائسين. فهو هناك اكتشف البؤس والظلم الاجتماعيين ليجعل منهما موضوع روايته الأولى ليعير بطلها باردامو، تجاربه الشخصية، ما مكنه من أن يرسم «صورة لا رحمة فيها لمشهد عبثية الحياة»... تلك الحياة المكونة من «الاكاذيب الصغيرة وضروب قسوة الانسان على اخيه الانسان». ان العالم الذي صوره سيلين في هذا العمل، يبدو على الدوام لا مهرب منه ولا يحمل بارقة امل... ومع هذا ها هو سيلين نفسه يقول لنا: «ما هي خلفية هذه الحكاية كلها؟ لست ادري... اذ ما من أحد فهم حقا هذه الخلفية... ومع هذا اقول لكم ببساطة انها الحب... الحب الذي لا نزال نجرؤ على التحدث عنه وسط هذا الجحيم». قسم سيلين روايته هذه - وكان هذا التقسيم جديدا إلى حد ما على الادب الفرنسي في ذلك الحين - إلى مشاهد وفصول تتفاوت طولا وكثافة، من دون أن يعطيها ارقاما... وكأنه شاء للزمن العابر، لا للرقم، ان يحدد مسار احداث هذه الرواية. والفصل الأول منها يبدأ عشية اندلاع الحرب العالمية الأولى، لينتهي الفصل الأخير في العام 1928، اي بعد عشر سنوات من توقيع الهدنة التي انهت تلك الحرب. وكما يحدث في الروايات «البيكارية»، حيث لا وجود لحبكة واحدة، يدفع سيلين بطله (اي اناه - الآخر، بمعنى من المعاني) إلى التجول في زوايا الأرض الأربع، تقوده الصدف التي لا تخطيط مسبقا لها. وهكذا، في الفصل الأول نرانا نلاحق باردامو، في جبهة القتال، ثم نتبعه إلى الجهات الخلفية في المستعمرات الفرنسية الأفريقية (الكونغو خاصة) قبل أن ننتقل معه إلى الولايات المتحدة الاميركية. ثم في قسم ثان من الرواية نعيش معه وقد انصرف إلى ممارسة الطب في الضاحية الباريسية. لكن في الوقت نفسه نراه يقوم بأداء ادوار تافهة في صالة أحد الملاهي في «الجادّات الكبرى» حيث كانت المسارح وأماكن اللهو تصخب في ذلك الحين، ثم نراه بعد ذلك ينضم إلى عيادة للطب العقلي يديرها طبيب مخضرم هو الدكتور باريتون. وفي خضم ذلك كله، ابتكر سيلين لبطله، شخصية أخرى غارقة في بؤسها: روبنسون الذي لا يكف عن الالتقاء به في لحظات انعطافية من الرواية، ليتحول بين الحين والآخر إلى شبيه أو قرين له، يرعبه مصيره ويبدو غير تواق إلى عيشه بنفسه. وروبنسون هذا سيموت عند نهاية الرواية، ما يوفر على باردامو، الذي تتكوّن مسيرته كلها من هروب إلى الامام، ان يموت، هو، ذلك الموت المأسوي الذي لولا وجود روبنسون لكان من نصيبه. ولا بد من أن نذكر هنا ان باردامو هو الذي يروي لنا احداث الرواية بنفسه، ما يعطينا الانطباع بأننا لن نعرف أكثر مما يعرف هو، ولن نعيش سوى أسلوبه في عيش حياته. |
Louis-Ferdinand Celine's revulsion and anger at what he considered the idiocy and hypocrisy of society explodes from nearly every page of this novel. Filled with slang and obscenities and written in raw, colloquial language, Journey to the End of the Night is a literary symphony of violence, cruelty and obscene nihilism. This book shocked most critics when it was first published in France in 1932, but quickly became a success with the reading public in Europe, and later in America where it was first published by New Directions in 1952. The story of the improbable yet convincingly described travels of the petit-bourgeois (and largely autobiographical) antihero, Bardamu, from the trenches of World War I, to the African jungle, to New York and Detroit, and finally to life as a failed doctor in Paris, takes the readers by the scruff and hurtles them toward the novel's inevitable, sad conclusion
== Louis-Ferdinand Céline was the pen name of Louis Ferdinand Auguste Destouches (27 May 1894 – 1 July 1961). He was a French novelist, pamphleteer and physician. The name Céline was the first name of his grandmother. He is considered one of the most influential writers of the twentieth century, developing a new style of writing that modernized both French and world literature Early life The only child of Fernand Destouches and Marguerite-Louise-Céline Guilloux, he was born Louis Ferdinand Auguste Destouches in 1894 at Courbevoie, just outside Paris in the Seine département (now Hauts-de-Seine). The family came originally from Brittany. His father was a minor functionary in an insurance firm and his mother was a lacemaker.[2] In 1905 he was awarded his Certificat d'études, after which he worked as an apprentice and messenger boy in various trades.[2] Between 1908 and 1910 his parents sent him to Germany and England for a year in each country in order to acquire foreign languages for future employment.[2] From the time he left school, until the age of eighteen, Céline worked various jobs, leaving or losing them after only short periods of time. He often found himself working for jewellers, first, at eleven, as an errand boy, and later as a salesperson for a local goldsmith. Although he was no longer being formally educated, he bought schoolbooks with the money he earned, and studied by himself. It was around this time that Céline started to want to become a doctor.[3] World War I and AfricaIn 1912, in what Céline described as an act of rebellion against his parents, he joined the French army, two years before the start of the first World War and its mandatory French conscription. This was a time in France when, following the Moroccan crisis of 1911, nationalism reached "fever pitch" – a period one historian described as "The Hegemony of Patriotism" (1911–1914), particularly affecting opinion in the lycées and grandes écoles of Paris.[4] Becoming a doctorIn 1912 Céline began a three-year enlistment in the 12th Cuirassier Regiment stationed in Rambouillet.[2] At first, he was unhappy with the military, and even considered deserting. However, he adapted, and eventually attained the rank of Sergeant.[3] The beginning of the First World War brought action to Céline's unit. On 25 October 1914, Céline volunteered to deliver a message, when others were reluctant to do so because of heavy German fire. Near Ypres, during his attempt to deliver the message, he was wounded in his right arm. (He was not wounded in the head, contrary to a popular rumor that he perpetuated.)[3] For his bravery, Céline was awarded the médaille militaire in November, and appeared one year later in the weekly l'Illustré National of November 1915, p16.[2] In March 1915 he was sent to London to work in the French passport office. While in London, he was married to Suzanne Nebout and divorced one year later.[2] In September, his arm wounds were such that he was officially declared physically unfit for military duty and was discharged. He returned to France, where he began working at a variety of jobs. In 1916 Céline set out for Africa as a representative of the Sangha-Oubangui company. He was sent to the Cameroons and returned to France in 1917.[2] Little is known of this trip except that it was unsuccessful.[3] After returning to France he worked for the Rockefeller Foundation. As part of a team, it was his job to travel to Brittany teaching people how to fight tuberculosis and how to improve hygiene.[3] In June 1919 Céline went to Bordeaux and completed the second part of his baccalauréat. Through his work with the Institute, Céline had come into contact, and good standing, with Monsieur Follet, the director of the medical school in Rennes. On 11 August 1919 Céline married Follet's daughter Édith Follet, with whom he had been acquainted for some time.[3] With Monsieur Follet's influence, Céline was accepted into the university. On 15 June 1920 his wife gave birth to a daughter, Colette Destouches. During this time, he studied intensely, obtaining certificates in physics, chemistry, and natural sciences. By 1923, three years after he had started the medical program at Rennes, Céline had completed almost everything he needed to complete his medical degree. His doctoral thesis, The Life and Work of Ignaz Semmelweis, is considered his first literary work, completed in 1924. Ignaz Semmelweis's contribution "was immense and it stood, according to Céline, in direct proportion to the misery of his life."[3] In 1924 Céline began work as an intern at a Paris maternity hospital. Becoming a writerIn 1925 Céline left his family, never to return. Working for the newly founded League of Nations, he travelled to Switzerland, England, the Cameroons, Canada, the United States, and Cuba. During this period, he began to write the play L'Eglise (1933; The Church). In 1926 he visited America, and was sent to Detroit to study the conditions of the workers at the Ford Automotive company. Seeing the effects of the "assembly line" disgusted him. His article described the plant as a sensory attack on the worker, and how this attack had literally made the worker part of the machine. In 1928, Céline returned to medicine to establish a private practice in Montmartre, in the north end of Paris, specializing in obstetrics.[5] He ended his private practice in 1931 to work in a public dispensary. == Louis Céline, originally named Louis Ferdinand Destouches, b. May 27, 1894, d. July 1, 1961, was a French writer and doctor whose novels Journey to the End of the Night (1932; Eng. trans., 1943) and Death on the Installment Plan (1936; Eng. trans., 1938) are innovative, chaotic, and antiheroic visions of human suffering. Pessimism pervades Céline's fiction as his characters sense failure, anxiety, nihilism, and inertia. Céline was unable to communicate with others, and during his life sank more deeply into a hate-filled world of madness and rage. A progressive disintegration of personality is visible in the stylistic incoherence of Guignol's Band (1944; Eng. trans., 1954), Castle to Castle (1957; Eng. trans., 1968), and North (1960; Eng. trans., 1972). His novels are verbal frescoes peopled with horrendous giants, paraplegics, and gnomes, and are filled with scenes of dismemberment and murder. Accused of collaboration, Céline fled (1944) France to live in Germany at Sigmaringen and then moved (1945) to Denmark. Condemned by default (1950) in France to one year of imprisonment and declared a national disgrace, Céline returned to France after his pardon in 1951. ==French writer and physician, nihilist and anti-Semitist, a controversial figure, who became famous with his first novel Voyage au bout de la nuit (1932, Journey to the End of the Night). Céline was wounded severely in World War I and respected as a national hero. After World War II he was accused of collaborating with the Nazis and only his literary fame saved him from imprisonment. "In this world we spent our time killing or adoring, or both together. 'I hate you! I adore you!' We keep going, we fuel and refuel, we pass on our life to a biped of the next century, with frenzy, or any cost, as if it were the greatest of pleasures to perpetuate ourselves, as if, when all's said and done, it would make us immortal. One way or another, kissing is as indispensable as scratching." (from Journey to the End of Night) Louis-Ferdinand Destouches (Louis-Ferdinand Céline) was born in Courbevoie in the Seine Department. His father was employed by an insurance company and mother dealt in quality lace. Céline grew in Paris, where his mother set up a shop in the Passage Choiseul. Céline's parents planned him a career in business and sent him abroad to learn languages. - He studied at a school at Diepholz in Lower Saxony, then at an English boarding school, and worked in various commercial companies. - In 1912, at the age of 18, he enlisted in a cavalry unit, the Twelfth Regiment of the Cuirassiers. - He was seriously wounded during World War I in Ypres, which left him with a damaged arm, a buzzing and ringing in his head, and headaches that lasted all his life. - In the autobiographical novel North (1960) he wrote about his ear noises: "I listen to them become trombones, full orchestras, marshaling yards..." He was awarded the Médaille militaire and a seventy-five percent disability pension. Céline was then assigned to the French passport office in London. In 1915 he married Suzanne Nebout, a Frenchwoman working as a barmaid, but this union was not registered with the French consulate. They divorced a years later, - when he wen to the Cameroons, where he worked for a lumber company. Upon contracting malaria and dysentery, Céline was sent back to France. In 1919 he married Edith Follet, whose father was a director of a medical school. After studying medicine at the University of Rennes, Céline received his degree from the University of Paris in 1924. His doctoral thesis was entitled La Vie et l'Œuvre de Philippe Ignace Semmelweis. This biographical study was about Hungarian physician who discovered how to prevent childbed fever and what was most important, Semmelweis introduced antiseptic procedures into medicine. In 1925 Céline left his practice, his wife, and his daughter to work as a doctor for the League of Nations. He traveled for three years in Switzerland, the Cameroons, the United States, Cuba, and Canada. While in Detroit he studied problems of social medicine at the Ford factories. In 1928 he opened a private practice in a suburb of Paris and in 1931 he was employed by a municipal clinic at Clichy, in Paris. Céline had an affair with Cillie Pam, a gymnastics instructor; she was a Jew, married and lived in Vienna. They met irregularly over the years. Eventually Pam broke up with Céline, who wrote in 1939 in a letter, that "[b]ecause of my anti-Semitic stance I've lost all my jobs (Clichy, etc.) and I'm going to court on March 8. You see, Jews can persecute too." "Those who talk about the future are scoundrels. It is the present that matters. To evoke one's posterity is to make a speech to maggots." (from Journey to the End of the Night, 1932) |
لويس فردينان أُغوست ديتوش - كان الولد الوحيد لوالديه ولد عام 1894.(Louis Ferdinand Auguste Destouches) كاتب روائي وطبيب فرنسي، ولد سنة 1894م في ضاحية باريس (كوربفوا)، توفي سنة 1961م في مودن (الضاحية الجنوبية لباريس)، عرف لاحقاُ باسمه الأدبي لوییس فردینان سيلین (Louis-Ferdinand Céline) أو اختصاراً سيلین (من اسم جدته). يعتبر سلين من أشهر وأكثر كتاب فرنسا ترجمتاً في القرن العشرين. فكره العدمي يتميز بنبرنة من السخرية وأخرى من الملحمية في آن واحد. دخل سيلين الشهرة الأدبية من بابها الواسع بعد نشره رواته الأولى سفر إلى آخر الليل سنة 1932م، حيث ينتقد الكاتب بنمطه الأدبي الفريد رعب الحرب، قسوة الرأس المالية وإلى حدٍ ما الاستعمار، من خلال الشخصية الرئيسية للرواية فرديناند باردامو (المستوحاة من التجارب الشخصية لسيلين). نشره لمقالاتٍ معاديةٍ للسامية في الثلاثينيات وتعاونه الفكري مع المحتل الألماني وحكومة فيشي أثناء الحرب العالمية الثانية ضد "الخطر اليهودي على فرنسا" جلب له متاعب جمة (قضائية، مالية وإدارية) بعد الحرب. في الخمسينيات عاش سيلين وحيداً مع زوجته في ضاحية باريس، في عزلة عن الدوائر الأدبية الباريسية حتى مات في العام 1961م. ذالك لم يمنعه من نشر ثلاث قصصٍ (من قصرٍ لآخر 1957م، شمال 1960م وريغودون التي نشرت بعد وفاته سنة 1969م) حيث يروي من خلالها حيثيات فراره مع فلول حكومة فيشي في نهاية الحرب عبر ألمانيا ثم إلى الدنمارك. يعتبر سيلين في الأدب الفرنسي من أكبر الروائي القرن العشرين، إلى جانب كتاب "سخافة الإنسانية" كألبير كامو، جان بول سارتر أو صمويل بيكيت. ابتدع سلين أسلوباً لغوياً خاصاً، متقنٌ للغاية، رغم اعتماده على لغة الشارع الباريسي == - كانت العائلة فقيرة وعمل وهو في سن الحادية عشر في عدة اعمال. - في سن 14 ارسله والديه الى المانيا وانجلترا لتيعمل لغة حيث عاش لمدة نستنين وعاش في مدارس داخليه. - عمل منذ عن غادر المدرسة وحتى سن 18 في عدة وظائف والتي كان يفقدها بعد مدة قصيرة. - عام 1912 أي وهو في سن الثامنة عشره انضم الى الجيش الفرنسي كاجراء ثوري ضد والديه. - اصيب في المعركة وفقد يده اليمنى، وطنين في اذنه ووجع في الرأس استمرت طوال حياته. - تزوج وعمره 21 سنه وطلق بعد عام واحد. - وعمره 22 سنه ارسل الى الكاميرون كممثل لشركة وهناك اصيب بالملاريا والدينزنتاريا واعيد الى فرنسا.. مأزوم ويتيم اجتماعي بسبب العلاقة الغربية مع والديه. يتيم اجتماعي. |
by William Shakespeare, England, (1564-1616) == الملك لير تراجيديا لـ شكسبير كتبت المسرحية ما بين سنة 1603 م وسنة 1606 م قدمت على المسرح لأول مرة سنة 1606 م استمد شكسبير الحبكة من كتاب هولنشد عن تاريخ إنجلترا، إقتبس الحبكة الثانوية من ما رواه سبنسر في ملحمته الشعرية "ملكة الجان" وضعها النقاد على قمة ما كتب شكسبير باعتبارها تنتمي إلى العصر الحديث أو تحمل بذور الحداثة ترجمت المسرحية لأكثر من لغة، وترجمها للغة العربية : د.محمد عناني، د. فاطمة موسى، جبرا إبراهيم جبرا. يقول النقاد أن مسرحية الملك لير تقرأ ولا تمثل، كناية عن صعوبة تحويلها إلى عمل مسرحي. حبكة المسرحيةإلا إن المخرج المصري أحمد عبد الحليم حولها إلى عمل مسرحي ناجح وشعبي في مصر حيث قدمها على المسرح القومي، مستعيناً بنجومية الممثل يحيى الفخراني وموسيقى راجح داوود وأشعار أحمد فؤاد نجم ومجموعة من الممثلات والممثلين مثل : أحمد سلامة وصفاء الطوخي وعهدي صادق وأشرف عبد الغفور وسلوى محمد علي ومجدي إدريس وإبراهيم الشرقاوي. وكما يقول مخرج المسرحية فإنها عرضت في مسرح القلعة المفتوح بالقاهرة على جمهور عادي جداً وتخوف الممثلون من عدم تقدير الجمهور للعرض أو عدم فهمه أو عدم التزام الجمهور بتقاليد المسرح، إلا إنهم فوجئوا بهدوء الجمهور فور بدء العرض وتقبلهم له ببساطه. شخصيات المسرحية: 1-لير ملك بريطانيا 2جنريل 3-ريجان بنات الملك لير 4-كردليا بنت الملك الصغرى 5-البهلول نديم الملك لير 6-كنت وزير الملك لير 7-جلستر أحد الامراء 8-ادجار 9-أدمند أبناء الأمير جلستر خدم و جنود و مواطنون تحكى عن لير ملك بريطانيا الأسطوري عاش شبابه فارس من أقوى الفرسان وعندما تقدم به السن قرر تقسيم ملكه بين بناته الثلاث (جنريل)و(ريجان)و(كردليا)ثم طلب من بناته الثلاث ان يعبرن عن حبهن له فقالت لة جنريل انااحبك متل زبدة البحر وقالت لة ريجان انا احبك كعدد البشر ولكن لم تتملق ابته الثالثة في مدحه كما فعلت الاخوات الكبريات فقلت لة انا احبك مثل الشخاص الذين يحبون والديهم وبعده غضب عليها لير ظنا منه انها لا تحبه لذلك طردها من مملكته بلا شي ولكن تزوجها ملك فرنسا بقوله انها لا تطمع بشي من المال لذلك هو من سوف يتزوجها. وعندما كبرت الفتاتان جنريل وريجان.. قامتا بطرد أبوهما من المملكة لذا قررت كردليا أن تساعد أبوها فأرسلت جيش قوى إلى إنجلترا وقامت حرب بين إنجلترا وفرنسا من أجل تحرير الملك لير.. بعد ذلك انهزم جيش فرنسا وانتصر جيش إنجلترا فقامت جونريل وأختها ريجان بإلقاء القبض على كردليا والملك وأسرهما في السجن.. وعندئذ عرف الملك لير كم تحبه ابنته كردليا.. وأن ما قامت به الأختان الأخرتان ماهو إلا تملق من أجل الحصول على العرش.. فندم ندما شديدا. == == الملك لير .. كان الملك لير ملكا على بريطانيا .. وكانت له ثلاث بنات .. البنت الكبرى .. جونريل متزوجة من دوق البانى .. و البنت الوسطي ريجان متزوجة من دوق كورنول .. أما البنت الصغرى كورديليا فقد كانت غير متزوجة .. وتقدم الى خطبتها كل من ملك فرنسا و دوق برجاندى اللذين كانا موجودين بقصر الملك لير عندما بدأت أحداث تلك المسرحية . كان الملك لير وقتئذ عجوزا تجاوز الأعوام الثمانين .. وشعر بان الوقت قد حان ليتخفف من أعباء حكم مملكته لذلك قرر أن يقسم المملكة بين بناته الثلاث على ان يتحدد نصيب كل منهن بحسب ما تقوله من كلمات تعبر عن حبها لأبيها .. وهكذا استدعى الملك لير بناته الثلاث وطلب من كل واحدة منهن ان تعبر عن مدى حبها له .. ولان البنت الكبرى جونريل كانت على قدر كبير من المكر و الدهاء . و القدرة على تنميق الكلمات فقد قالت أنها تحب أباها بما تعجز الكلمات عن وصفه وان أباها اعز من عينيها وحريتها وحياتها كلها وأعجب الملك لير بكلام ابنته الكبرى فوهبها هي وزوجها دوق البانى ثلث مملكته وكانت البنت الوسطي ريجان لا تقل عن أختها مكرا و دهاءا .وقدرة على تزويق الكلام فقالت ان كل متع الدنيا لا تقارن بالسعادة التى تحسها بسبب حبها لأبيها .. وأعجب الملك لير بكلام ابنته الوسطي فوهبها وزوجها الدوق كورنول الثلث الثاني من مملكته وكانت البنت الصغرى كورديليا تدرك مدى الزيف فى كلمات كل من اختيها وتعرف ان كل واحدة منهما قالت كلماتها المنمقة والمزوقة رغبة فى الحصول على اكبر جزء من اموال أبيها .. ولذلك فقد أثرت هي ان يكون حبها لأبيها صامتا وصادقا فى نفس الوقت وقالت أنها تحب أباها طبقا للأصول الواجبة باعتبارها ابنته .. بهت الملك لير عندما سمع تلك الكلمات الجافة من ابنته الصغرى .. كورديليا فقد توقع ان تكون كلمات هذه الابنة الأثيرة لديه أكثر رقة وأجمل تعبيرا من الكلمات التى قالتها كل من اختيها وعندما طلب منها الملك ان تهذب حديثها وتختار كلمات أخرى رقيقة وجميلة قالت كورديليا أنها تحب والدها الذي أنجبها وأحسن تربيتها وعلمها الطاعة و الصدق ولذلك فهي لا تستطيع ان تقول مثل اختيها بأنها لا تحب احد غيره فى هذا العالم لان معنى ذلك أنها ستقصر حبها على أبيها وحده ولن تحب أحدا سواه ولو كان زوجها وأبناءها ولان الملك لير كان عجوزا هرما فقد افقده السن قدرته على التمييز السليم بين الكلام الصادق الذى يخرج من القلب والكلام الزائف الذى قد ينطق به اللسان لذلك فقد اعتقد ان ابنته كورديليا تتكبر عليه فضب غضبا شديدا وقرر ان يحرمها من الحصول على اى جزء من مملكته بل وأعطى الثلث الباقى من المملكة مناصفة بين الاختين جونريل وزجها دوق البانى وريجان وزوجها دوق كورنول وجمع الملك كل رجال الدولة الذين كانوا موجودين بالقصر وتنازل أمامهم عن تاجه لابنتيه الكبرى و الوسطي كما تنازل لهما عن جميع سلطاته فى الحكم على ان يحتفظ لنفسه فقط بلقب الملك وبحقه فى ان يقيم طوال حياته لمدة شهر بالتناوب فى قصر كل من ابنتيه ومعه مائة من فرسانه أصيب النبلاء ورجال القصر بدهشة شديدة من تصرف الملك على هذا النحو الخاطىء وغير العاقل وحزنوا كثيرا لمصير الابنة الصغرى كورديليا التى كانت اكثر صدقا من اختيها ومع ذلك فقد كان عليها ان تواجه هذا المصير التعس.. ولكن أحدا من هؤلاء النبلاء لم يستطع ان يعترض على تصرف الملك فلزموا الصمت ولم ينطقوا بكلمة فيما عدا النبيل ايرل كنت الذى كان اكثر النبلاء أخلاصا للملك فقد تجرأ ونطق ببعض كلمات طيبة فى صالح كورديليا فغضب الملك وطلب من ان يسكت والا أمر بإعدامه لم يهتم ايرل كنت بتهديد الملك فواصل كلامه الطيب فى نصح الملك الذى استشاط غضبا وأمر بطرد ايرل كنت من القصر وبنفيه من البلاد كلها وأعطاه خمسة أيام ليرحل وإذا بقى فى المملكة حتى اليوم السادس فسوف ينفذ فيه حكم الإعدام أما كورديليا فأصبحت الآن لا تملك سوى نفسها فتراجع دوق برجاندى عن طلب يدها للزواج ولكن ملك فرنسا لمس من تصرف هذه الابنة الطيبة مع أبيها أنها مخلصة وصادقة ومن معدن نفيس طيب لذلك فقد أصر على طلب يدها لتصبح زوجته وتصبح بالتالي ملكة على فرنسا وودعت كورديليا أباها وأختيها وطلبت منهما ان تكونا رحيمتين بابيهما وان تعاملاه معاملة حسنة وهكذا رحلت كورديليا الى فرنسا وقلبها مفعم بالحزن على أبيها وعلى المصير الذى تتوقعه من جانب اختيها المخادعتين وبدا الملك لير إقامته لمدة شهر فى قصر ابنته الكبرى جونريل على ان يقيم فى الشهر التالي فى قصر ابنته الوسطي ريجان ثم يعود للإقامة فى قصر جونريل لمدة شهر وهكذا ولكن وقبل ان ينقضي الشهر الاول الذى قضاه الملك لير فى قصر ابنته الكبرى بدأ يكتشف الفرق الهائل بين الواقع المرير و الوعود الزائفة التى قطعتها الابنة على نفسها حين أعلنت قبول إقامة الملك فى قصرها ومعه فرسانه المائة لقد ضاقت الابنة الجحودة بابيها وفرسانه بل طلبت من خدم القصر بان يتغافلوا عن تلبية طلباته وان يتظاهروا بعدم سماعه وكان النبيل ايرل كنت قد قرر البقاء فى بريطانيا متخفيا ليظل فى خدمة مليكه فخلع ملابسه الفاخرة وارتدى ملابس الخدم وانتحل لنفسه اسما جديدا هو كايوس والتحق بخدمة الملك لير ليكون بقربه بصفة دائمة ولا حظ كايوس ان احد الخدم بإيعاز من جونريل نفسها قد عامل الملك بطريقة خالية من الاحترام الواجب فقام كايوس على الفور بضرب هذا الخادم غير المؤدب وطرحه أرضا وهكذا حاز الخادم كايوس وهو فى الوقت نفسه ايرل كنت المتخفي ثقة الملك لير وحبه وعلى عادة ملوك هذا الزمان كان الملك يحتفظ بمهرج ليضحكه وكثيرا ما كان هذا المهرج يقول كلمات مرحة يسخر فيها من حماقة الملك حين قسم مملكته الى قسمين اعطاهما لابنتين جاحدتين وأخيرا جاءت اللحظة التى فهم فيها الملك لير أسباب ودوافع المعاملة السيئة التى كانت تعامله بها ابنته .. فقد أعلنت جونريل بكل وضوح وبكل تذمر أنها لا تطيق أباها الذى أصبح مخرفا ولا تطيق فرسانه المائة الذين يملؤن القصر بالضجيج ولا يفعلون شيئا سوى أكل الطعام كما قالت أنها لا تستطيع تحمل تكاليف كل هؤلاء الفرسان وانه من الأفضل للملك ان يطردهم جميعا وان يحتفظ فقط ببعض كبار السن منهم صدم الملك لير بعدما سمع هذا الكلام البغيض وأحس بمدى عقوق ابنته جونريل فاخذ يلعنها ويدعو الله ان يحرمها من إنجاب الأطفال او ان تنجب ابنة تذيقها كاس الهوان لتحس بالعذاب الذى يحسه الآباء من عقوق الأبناء لان الابن العاق يسبب الما لوالديه أقسى من لدغة الثعبان وقرر الملك لير ان يغادر قصر ابنته جونريل ومعه فرسانه ليذهب ويقيم مع ابنته الوسطي ريجان وأرسل خادمه كايوس برسالة الى ابنته يطلب منها فيها ان تستعد لاستقباله ولكن الابنة جونريل أرسلت رسالة اخرى الى اختها تطلب منها الا تستقبل اباها ومعه كل هؤلاء الفرسان و الأتباع و كان الخادم الذى يحمل هذه الرسالة هو نفسه الخادم الذى ضربه كايوس وطرحه أرضا لذلك فقد ارتاب كايوس فى امر هذا الرسول و امر الرسالة التى يحملها وذلك حين قابله مصادفة بالقرب من قصر ريجان فوجه اليه كلاما عنيفا اهانه فيه وطلب منه ان يبارزه ولكن الخادم رفض المبارزة فاضطر كايوس الى ان يوسعه ضربا وصل امر هذا الشجار الذى حدث بين رسول جونريل ورسول الملك الى أسماع ريجان وزوجها دوق كورنول فأمرا على الفور بالقبض على كايوس رسول الملك وشده الى آلة التعذيب الرهيبة وحين وصل الملك لير وفرسانه الى قصر ريجان وشاهد خادمه كايوس مشدودا الى الة التعذيب امتلاء قلبه بالحزن و الخوف وعندما طلب مقابلة ابنته وزوجها اخبره الخدم بانهما متعبان ولن يستطيعا مقابلته فغضب الملك غضبا شديدا واخذ يصيح صيحات يائسة تعبر عن كل ما كان يشعره من هوان ومرارة واخيرا جاءت ابنته ريجان لتحيته ولكنها كانت تتابط ذراع اختها جونريل التى كانت قد وصلت لتحريض ريجان ضد ابيها وضد احتفاظه بالفرسان المائة ولذلك فقد تحطم قلب الملك لير وطار صوابه حين رأى ابنتيه العاقتين تتباريان فى القسوة عليه وهاج وماج ورفع ذراعيه الهزيلتين مهددا ولاعنا وفجأة أظلمت السماء وهبت الرياح وبرق البرق ودوى صوت الرعد فى الافاق وعندئذ كان الملك لير فقد صوابه وأعلن انه يريد الخروج ليواجه أخطار الطبيعة الغاضبة باعتبار ان ذلك أفضل عنده من البقاء تحت سقف واحد مع ابنتيه واندفع خارجا واغلقت الابنتان باب القصر من ورائه كانت العاصفة تزداد سوءا كلما توغل الملك لير فى الطريق واشتد هطول المطر واشتدت حدة هبوب الرياح وامتدت الأرض الفضاء أمامه كما لو كانت بلا نهاية واخذ الملك يصرخ فى غضب مجنون بأعلى صوته خلال ومضات البرق وأصوات الرعد ويطلب من الرياح ان تشتد اكثر وأكثر لتلقى بالأرض ومن عليها الى داخل البحر أو لتجعل أمواج البحر تعلو وتعلو حتى تغرق الأرض وتطيح بمن عليها من بشر غارقين فى أطماعهم وناكرين للجميل لم يكن الملك لير وحده فى تلك العاصفة كان معه المهرج الذى اخذ يسخر من الطبيعة ومن الملك نفسه ويطلب منه ان يعود الى ابنتيه ذليلا ليطلب منهما الصفح وكان النبيل ايرل كنت المتنكر فى هيئة الخادم كايوس قد خرج هو ايضا فى العاصفة ليبحث عن سيده الملك العجوز لينقذه من تلك العاصفة المدمرة وعندما عثر عليه كان الملك فى ذروة صراخه و جنونه وعبثا حاول كايوس ان يقنع الملك بالدخول الى كوخ فقير ليحتمي فيه من غضب الطبيعة الى ان قبل الملك فى النهاية وبداخل الكوخ شاهد الملك شحاذا فقيرا كان قد لجأ الى الكوخ ليحتمي فيه وكان الشحاذ يلبس هلاهيل ممزقة لا تكاد تستر جسمه فقال الملك لابد ان هذا الرجل قد وهب كل شيء الى بناته لان اى رجل لا يمكن ان يصل الى هذا المصير البائس الا اذا كان والدا لبنات جاحدات بعد ان هدأت العاصفة اصطحب النبيل المخلص ايرل كنت الملك لير الى قلعة دوفر وطلب من بعض الفرسان الذين مازالوا مخلصين للملك ويحتفظون بولائهم له ان يقوموا برعاية الملك بدلا منه لأنه سيقوم برحلة قصيرة وأبحر ايرل كنت الى فرنسا حيث قابل الملكة كورديليا الابنة الصغرى للملك لير و التى تزوجها ملك فرنسا واخبرها بالمصير المؤلم والمؤسف الذى انتهى اليه والدها بسبب الجحود و المعاملة وعدم الاحترام و الإذلال الذى لاقاه الملك من اختيها وطلبت الملكة كورديليا من زوجها ملك فرنسا ان يزودها بجيش كبير تذهب به الى بريطانيا لإسقاط حكم هاتين الاختين الجاحدتين فوافق الملك على إعداد وتجهيز الجيش المطلوب وأبحر الجيش ونزل الى شواطىء دوفر فى ذلك الوقت كان الملك لير قد تمكن من الهرب من رقابة فرسان قلعة دوفر وانطلق يغدو فى الحقول المجاورة وهو فى حالة جنون مؤسفة كان يغنى بأعلى صوته اغانى لا معنى لها ويضع على رأسه تاجا من القش وانطلق بعض جنود جيش كورديليا ليبحثوا عن الملك الى ان عثروا عليه وهو فى تلك الحالة المؤسية البائسة وكانت كورديليا مشتاقة الى رؤية والدها ولكن الأطباء منعوها من ذلك بسبب سوء حالته فوعدتهم بان تعطيهم كل ما تملكه من ذهب و مجوهرات اذا عالجوا اباها وأعادوه الى حالته الطبيعية وبعد ان هدأت حالة الملك قليلا ذهبت كورديليا لمقابلته وتم لقاء حافل بالمشاعر بين الملك وابنته الوفية التى أخبرته بأنها جاءت لتعيد اليه حقوقه .. فى تلك الأثناء كان الخلاف قد دب بين الاختين الجاحدتين جونريل وريجان ولان هاتين الاختين كانتا غير مخلصتين لابيهما فقد كانتا ايضا غير مخلصتين لزوجيهما ومن الغريب أنهما وقعتا فى حب دنيء لرجل واحد هو ادموند الابن الغير شرعي لايرل جلوسستر وكان هذا الابن قد استطاع ان يغتصب حكم جلوسستر من أخيه ادجار الوريث الشرعي لحكم المقاطعة وتلاحقت الأحداث بسرعة مات دوق كورنول زوج الابنة ريجان التى أعلنت على الفور عزمها على الزواج من ادموند الذى كان على علاقة سابقة معها ومع اختها جونريل فى نفس الوقت ولذلك فقد حقدت جونريل على اختها وأعمتها الغيرة فدست لها السم وقتلتها وعندما علم دوق البانى زوج جونريل بالجريمة التى ارتكبتها زوجته الشريرة امر بالقبض عليها وإعدامها وهكذا انتهت شرور هاتين الاختين الجاحدتين أما الابنة الوفية كورديليا فقد انهزم جيشها فى حربه مع جيش ادموند الذى اسر كورديليا وأعدمها ومات الملك لير حزنا على ابنته الوفية ومات بعده ايرل كنت الذى كان متنكرا فى هيئة الخادم كايوس حزنا على وفاة سيده وقتل ادموند فى مبارزة قامت بينه وبين ادجار الوريث الشرعي الذى استعاد حكم المقاطعة من الأخ المغتصب لها وأصبح دوق البانى زوج جونريل ملكا على انجلترا وهكذا انتهت حكاية الملك لير وبناته الثلاث |
King Lear Synopsisis a tragedy by William Shakespeare. The title character descends into madness after foolishly disposing of his estate between two of his three daughters based on their flattery, bringing tragic consequences for all. The play is based on the legend of Leir of Britain, a mythological pre-Roman Celtic king. It has been widely adapted for the stage and motion pictures, and the role of Lear has been coveted and played by many of the world's most accomplished actors. The play was written between 1603 and 1606 and later revised. Shakespeare's earlier version, The True Chronicle of the History of the Life and Death of King Lear and His Three Daughters, was published in quarto in 1608. The Tragedy of King Lear, a more theatrical version, was included in the 1623 First Folio. Modern editors usually conflate the two, though some insist that each version has its individual integrity that should be preserved.[1] After the Restoration, the play was often revised with a happy ending for audiences who disliked its dark and depressing tone, but since the 19th century Shakespeare's original version has been regarded as one of his supreme achievements. The tragedy is particularly noted for its probing observations on the nature of human suffering and kinship. George Bernard Shaw wrote, "No man will ever write a better tragedy than Lear".[2] King Lear, who is elderly and wants to retire from power, decides to divide his realm among his three daughters, and offers the largest share to the one who loves him best. Goneril and Regan both proclaim in fulsome terms that they love him more than anything in the world, which pleases him. For Cordelia, there is nothing to compare her love to, nor words to properly express it; she speaks honestly but bluntly, which infuriates him. In his anger he disinherits her, and divides the kingdom between Regan and Goneril. Kent objects to this unfair treatment. Lear is further enraged by Kent's protests, and banishes him from the country. Lear summons the Duke of Burgundy and the King of France, who have both proposed marriage to Cordelia. Learning that Cordelia has been disinherited, the Duke of Burgundy withdraws his suit, but the King of France is impressed by her honesty and marries her anyway. Lear announces he will live alternately with Goneril and Regan, and their husbands, the Dukes of Albany and Cornwall respectively. He reserves to himself a retinue of one hundred knights, to be supported by his daughters. Goneril and Regan speak privately, revealing that their declarations of love were fake, and they view Lear as an old and foolish man. Edmund resents his illegitimate status, and plots to dispose of his legitimate older brother Edgar. He tricks their father Gloucester with a forged letter, making him think Edgar plans to usurp the estate. Kent returns from exile in disguise under the name of Caius, and Lear hires him as a servant. Lear discovers that now that Goneril has power, she no longer respects him. She orders him to behave better and reduces his retinue. Enraged, Lear departs for Regan's home. The Fool mocks Lear's misfortune. Edmund fakes an attack by Edgar, and Gloucester is completely taken in. He disinherits Edgar and proclaims him an outlaw. Bearing Lear's message to Regan, Kent-as-Caius meets Oswald at Gloucester's home, quarrels with him, and is put in the stocks by Regan and her husband Cornwall. When Lear arrives, he objects to the mistreatment of his messenger, but Regan is as dismissive of her father as Goneril was. Lear is enraged but impotent. Goneril arrives and supports Regan's argument against him. Lear yields completely to his rage. He rushes out into a storm to rant against his ungrateful daughters, accompanied by the mocking Fool. Kent later follows to protect him. Gloucester protests against Lear's mistreatment. Wandering on the heath after the storm, Lear meets Edgar, in the guise of a madman named Tom o' Bedlam. Edgar babbles madly while Lear denounces his daughters. Kent leads them all to shelter. Edmund betrays Gloucester to Cornwall, Regan, and Goneril. He shows a letter from his father to the King of France asking for help against them; and in fact a French army has landed in Britain. Once Edmund leaves with Goneril to warn Albany about the invasion, Gloucester is arrested, and Cornwall gouges out Gloucester's eyes. As he is doing so, a servant is overcome with rage by what he is witnessing and attacks Cornwall, mortally wounding him. Regan kills the servant, and tells Gloucester that Edmund betrayed him; then she turns him out to wander the heath too. Edgar, in his madman's guise, meets his blinded father on the heath. Gloucester, not recognising him, begs Tom to lead him to a cliff at Dover so that he may jump to his death. Goneril discovers that she finds Edmund more attractive than her honest husband Albany, whom she regards as cowardly. Albany has developed a conscience - he is disgusted by the sisters' treatment of Lear, and the mutilation of Gloucester, and denounces his wife. Goneril sends Edmund back to Regan; receiving news of Cornwall's death, she fears her newly widowed sister may steal Edmund and sends him a letter through Oswald. Kent leads Lear to the French army, which is commanded by Cordelia. But Lear is half-mad and terribly embarrassed by his earlier follies. At Regan's instigation, Albany joins his forces with hers against the French. Goneril's suspicions about Regan's motives are confirmed and returned, as Regan rightly guesses the meaning of her letter and declares to Oswald that she is a more appropriate match for Edmund. Edgar pretends to lead Gloucester to a cliff, then changes his voice and tells Gloucester he has miraculously survived a great fall. Lear appears, by now completely mad. He rants that the whole world is corrupt and runs off. Oswald appears, still looking for Edmund. On Regan's orders, he tries to kill Gloucester but is killed by Edgar. In Oswald's pocket, Edgar finds Goneril's letter, in which she encourages Edmund to kill her husband and take her as his wife. Kent and Cordelia take charge of Lear, whose madness slowly passes. Regan, Goneril, Albany, and Edmund meet with their forces. Albany insists that they fight the French invaders but not harm Lear or Cordelia. The two sisters lust for Edmund, who has made promises to both. He considers the dilemma and plots the deaths of Albany, Lear, and Cordelia. Edgar gives Goneril's letter to Albany. The armies meet in battle, the British defeat the French, and Lear and Cordelia are captured. Edmund sends them off with secret orders for execution. The victorious British leaders meet, and the recently widowed Regan now declares she will marry Edmund. But Albany exposes the intrigues of Edmund and Goneril and proclaims Edmund a traitor. Regan falls ill, and is escorted offstage, where she dies. It is stated that Goneril slipped poison into her food. Edmund defies Albany, who calls for a trial by combat. Edgar appears in his own clothes, and challenges Edmund to a duel. Edgar wounds Edmund fatally, though he does not die immediately. Albany confronts Goneril with the letter which was intended to be his death warrant; she flees in shame and rage. Edgar reveals himself, and reports that Gloucester died offstage from the shock and joy of learning that Edgar is alive, after Edgar revealed himself to his father. Offstage, Goneril, with all her evil plans thwarted, commits suicide. The dying Edmund decides, though he admits it is against his own character, to try and save Lear and Cordelia; however, his confession comes too late. Soon after Albany sends men to countermand Edmund's orders, Lear enters bearing Cordelia's corpse in his arms, having survived by killing the executioner. Lear now recognizes Kent, but fails to make the connection between Kent and his alter-ego, Caius. Albany urges Lear to resume his throne, but like Gloucester, the trials Lear has been through have finally overwhelmed him, and he dies. Albany then asks Kent and Edgar to take charge of the throne. Kent declines, explaining that his master is calling him on a journey. It is unclear whether Kent intends to commit suicide, following Lear into death, or feels he is going to die in the same manner as Lear and Gloucester. Finally, either Albany (in the Quarto version) or Edgar (in the Folio version) has the final speech, with the implication that he will now become king[5][6] |
William Shakespeare is one of the most widely read authors and possibly the best dramatist ever to live. The actual date of his birth is not known, but traditionally April 23rd 1564 (St George's Day) has been his accepted birthday, as this was three days before his baptism. He died on the same date in 1616, aged fifty-two.The life of William Shakespeare can be divided into three acts. The first twenty years of his life were spent in Stratford-upon-Avon where he grew up, went to school, got married and became a father. The next twenty-five years he spent as an actor and playwright in London; and he spent his last few years back in Stratford-upon-Avon, where he enjoyed his retirement in moderate wealth gained from his successful years in the theatre.William was the eldest son of tradesman John Shakespeare and Mary Arden, and the third of eight children. His father was later elected mayor of Stratford, which was the highest post a man in civic politics could attain. In sixteenth-century England, William was lucky to survive into adulthood; syphilis, scurvy, smallpox, tuberculosis, typhus and dysentery shortened life expectancy at the time to approximately thirty-five years. The Bubonic Plague took the lives of many and was believed to have been the cause of death for three of William's seven siblings. Little is known of William's childhood, other than it is thought that he attended the local grammar school, where he studied Latin and English Literature. In 1582, at the age of eighteen, William married a local farmer's daughter, Anne Hathaway, who was eight years his senior and three months pregnant. During their marriage they had three children: Susanna, born on May 26th 1583 and twins, Hamnet and Judith, born on February 2nd 1585. Hamnet, William's only son, caught Bubonic Plague and died aged just eleven. Five years into his marriage William moved to London and appeared in many small parts at The Globe Theatre, then one of the biggest theatres in England. His first appearance in public as a poet was in 1593 with "Venus and Adonis" and again in the following year with "The Rape of Lucrece". Six years later, in 1599, he became joint proprietor of The Globe Theatre.When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was succeeded by her cousin King James of Scotland. King James supported Shakespeare and his band of actors and gave them license to call themselves "The King's Men" in return for entertaining the court. In just twenty-three years, between 1590 and 1613, William Shakespeare is attributed with writing thirty-eight plays, one-hundred-and-fifty-four sonnets and five poems. No original manuscript exists for any of his plays, so it is hard to accurately date them. However, from their contents and reports of the day it is believed that his first play was A"The Taming of the ShrewA" and that his last complete work was A"Two Noble KinsmenA", written two years before he died. The cause of his death remains unknown.He was buried on April 25th 1616,two days after his death, at the Church of the Holy Trinity (the same Church where he had been baptised fifty-two years earlier). His gravestone bears these words, believed to have been written by William himself:- "Good friend for Jesus sake forbear,To dig the dust enclosed here!Blest be the man that spares these stones,And curst be he that moves my bones"At the time of his death, William had substantial properties, which he bestowed on his family and associates from the theatre. In his will he left his wife, the former Anne Hathaway, his second best bed!William Shakespeare's last direct descendant died in 1670. She was his granddaughter, Elizabeth مكرر - مجهول الطفولة. |
Leaves of Grass Overviewby Walt Whitman, United States, (1819-1892) Whitman is today regarded as America's Homer or Dante, and his work the touchstone for literary originality in the New World. In Leaves of Grass, he abandoned the rules of traditional poetry - breaking the standard metred line, discarding the obligatory rhyming scheme, and using the vernacular. Emily Dickinson condemned his sexual and physiological allusions as 'disgraceful', but Emerson saw the book as the 'most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet contributed'. A century later it is his judgment of this autobiographical vision of the vigor of the American nation that has proved the more enduring. This is the most up-to-date edition for student use, with full critical apparatus. ABOUT THE SERIES: For over 100 years Oxford World's Classics has made available the widest range of literature from around the globe. Each affordable volume reflects Oxford's commitment to scholarship, providing the most accurate text plus a wealth of other valuable features, including expert introductions by leading authorities, helpful notes to clarify the text, up-to-date bibliographies for further study, and much more == Leaves of Grass is a poetry collection by the American poet Walt Whitman (1819–1892). Though the first edition was published in 1855, Whitman spent his entire life writing Leaves of Grass,[1] revising it in several editions until his death. Among the poems in the collection are "Song of Myself", "I Sing the Body Electric", "Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking", and in later editions, Whitman's elegy to the assassinated President Abraham Lincoln, "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd".This book is notable for its discussion of delight in sensual pleasures during a time when such candid displays were considered immoral. Where much previous poetry, especially English, relied on symbolism, allegory, and meditation on the religious and spiritual, Leaves of Grass (particularly the first edition) exalted the body and the material world. Influenced by Ralph Waldo Emerson and the Transcendentalist movement, itself an offshoot of Romanticism, Whitman's poetry praises nature and the individual human's role in it. However, much like Emerson, Whitman does not diminish the role of the mind or the spirit; rather, he elevates the human form and the human mind, deeming both worthy of poetic praise. Publication history and originInitial publication Leaves of Grass has its genesis in an essay called The Poet by Ralph Waldo Emerson, published in 1844, which expressed the need for the United States to have its own new and unique poet to write about the new country's virtues and vices. Whitman, reading the essay, consciously set out to answer Emerson's call as he began work on the first edition of Leaves of Grass. Whitman, however, downplayed Emerson's influence, stating, "I was simmering, simmering, simmering; Emerson brought me to a boil".[2] On May 15, 1855, Whitman registered the title Leaves of Grass with the clerk of the United States District Court, Southern District of New Jersey, and received its copyright.[3] The first edition was published in Brooklyn at the Fulton Street printing shop of two Scottish immigrants, James and Andrew Rome, whom Whitman had known since the 1840s,[4] on July 4, 1855. Whitman paid for and did much of the typesetting for the first edition himself. The book did not include the author's name, instead offering an engraving by Samuel Hollyer depicting the poet in work clothes and a jaunty hat, arms at his side.[5] Early advertisements for the first edition appealed to "lovers of literary curiosities" as an oddity.[6] Sales on the book were few but Whitman was not discouraged. The first edition was very small, collecting only twelve unnamed poems in 95 pages.[7] Whitman once said he intended the book to be small enough to be carried in a pocket. "That would tend to induce people to take me along with them and read me in the open air: I am nearly always successful with the reader in the open air."[8] About 800 were printed,[9] though only 200 were bound in its trademark green cloth cover.[3] The only American library known to have purchased a copy of the first edition was in Philadelphia.[10] The poems of the first edition, which were given titles in later issues, were "Song of Myself," "A Song For Occupations," "To Think of Time," "The Sleepers," "I Sing the Body Electric," "Faces," "Song of the Answerer," "Europe: The 72d and 73d Years of These States," "A Boston Ballad," "There Was a Child Went Forth," "Who Learns My Lesson Complete?", and "Great Are the Myths." The title Leaves of Grass was a pun. "Grass" was a term given by publishers to works of minor value and "leaves" is another name for the pages on which they were printed.[7] Whitman sent a copy of the first edition of Leaves of Grass to Emerson, the man who had inspired its creation. In a letter to Whitman, Emerson said "I find it the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom America has yet contributed."[11] He went on, "I am very happy in reading it, as great power makes us happy." == |
نشأته
ولد لأبوان ينتميان إلى أصول إنجليزية وهولندية، عاشت عائلته في بروكلين بين عامي 1832 - 1833، حيث تلقى تعليمه الأولي فيها، لكنه لم يكمل تعليمه وإشتغل صبيا في مطبعة. كان يقرأ كل ما تصل إليه يداه:الإنجيل، شكسبير،أوسيان،سكوت، هوميروس، شعراء الهند وألمانيا القدماء، كذلك قرا دانتي كله، اثرت هذه القراءات على شعره في الايقاع والمضمون، خاصة في مراحلة المتاخرة. محطات في حياتهاستطاع نتيجة لاطلاعه المستمر أن يعمل بالتدريس،ولكنه تركه بعد ذلك للعمل في الصحافة وكتابة المقالات في لونج أيلاند. موقفة من الحرب الأهلية الأمريكيةاشتغل بالسياسة وكان من الرواد الأوائل الذين أرسوا دعائم الديمقراطية الأمريكية. اتسع نشاطه الأدبي والسياسي لدرجة أنه بعد عام 1841 كان يراسل ويكتب فيما لا يقل عن عشر مجلات في بروكلين ونيويورك ،ولكن الأشعار الذي نشرها في هذه الفنرة كانت تقليدية وهزيلة، والقصص التي نشرها في المجلة الديموقراطية 1841-1845 كانت سطحية ومسرفة في العاطفة. في عام 1846 أصبح رئيساً لمجلة بروكلين إيجل الناطقة بلسان حال الحزب الديموقراطي، والتي هاجم فيها كل أنواع التعصب والفاشية والديكتاتورية مؤكداً انه لا ازدهار أمة إلا بترسيخ الديموقراطية فيها. في عام 1848 ذهب إلى نيوأورليانز وراس تحرير مجلة كريسينت لمدة ثلاثة شهور، وفي طريق عودته إلى بروكلين مر بمدن سانت لويس وشيكاغو ،حيث اكتشف لاول مرة روح الاكتشاف أو روح الحدود كما اصطلح الأمريكيون على تسميتها، وهي الروح التي ظهرت في فلسفته الشعرية. شمل نشاطه تحرير مجلة بروكلين تايمز. لم يتأثر بها إلا في عام 1862 عندما سافر إلى فرجينيا لزيارة أخيه جورج الذي جُرح في إحدى المعارك،عاد والت ويتمان إلى واشنطن لكي يتطوع للعمل كممرض في مستشفيات الجيش لخدمة الجنود الشماليين أو الجنوبيين على حد سواء. أوراق العشبسجل ذكرياته في الحرب في كتاب وصفي بعنوان مذكرات الحرب 1875. تأثر شعره بهذه التجربة الإنسانية فكتب ديوان دقات الطبل عام 1865،ثم أعاد طبعه عام 1866 مضيفاً القصائد التي يرثي فيها أبراهام لينكون مثل قصيدة أزهار البنفسج على عتبة الازدهار وقصيدة أيها القائد..يا قائدي. أثناء عمله في سكرتارية المكتب الهندي بوزارة الداخلية الأمريكية، صدر له ديوان أوراق العشب فقام الوزير بطرده على أساس أنه عمل غير أخلاقي. أصابته بالشلللكن الكتاب والمثقفيت لم يتحملوا هذه الإهانة التي لحقت بالشاعر الكبير، فكتب وليام أوكونور كتاب الشاعر الشيخ الصالح عام 1866. في عام 1867 أصدر جون باروز كتابه ملاحظات على والت ويتمان:الشاعر والإنسان. في العام 1873 أُصيب بنوبة شلل. فكرهأثر ذلك على كتاباته، وغيرت من فكرة إلى حد ما، لقد تحول أسلوبه الواقعي المباشر إلى صور التلميح والتجسيد الفني المركب. تبدلت فلسفته التي تعتبر الكون مادة واحدة، لكي تصبح مثالية روحانية يغلب عليها التصوف. تغيرت آراؤه السياسية من الفردية إلى القومية، بل حتى العالمية. هبطت درجة حماسه المطلقة للحرية الفردية إلى تأيد مطلق للنظام الذي يتحرك المجتمع في إطاره. هاجم كل أنواع التعصب والفاشية والديكتاتورية مؤكداً أنه لا ازدهار لأمة إلا بترسيخ الديمقراطية فيها. مكانتهلُقب بأبي الشعر الحر حيث أنه ضرب بكل القوالب الشعرية القديمة عرض الحائط، فقد تمكن من تحطيم القوالب الأوربية التي كان يصب فيها الشعر الأمريكي عنوة، مما جعله مجرد تقليد باهت يخلو من عناصر الأصالة التي تبع من تربة الوطن نفسه. آمن بأن الحرية الفردية لن تجد متنفساً لها إلا في الحب على حين تتمثل الحرية الاجتماعية في الديمقراطية، وأن الحب والديمقراطية وجهان لعملة واحدة هي المجتمع الإنساني كما يجب أن يكون. كانت عينه على الحياة الأمريكية على حين تتبعت عينه الأخرى الحياة في كل مكان. كان يرى أن الشاعر هو ضمير أمته، من ثم لا يمكنه النظر خارج حدودها لاستلهام الوحي، وأن الطريق إلى العالمية الإنسانية لابد أن يمر بالإقليمية المحلية. حدث تغيير في فكرة بعد إصابته بالشلل عام 1873. يعد والت ويتمان رائداً للشعر الأمريكي، كما يعد مارك توين رائداً للرواية الأمريكية ،ويوجين أونيل رائداً للمسرح الأمريكي. أعمالهيُعتبر أهم شاعر عبر عن الديموقراطية الأمريكية. كان أول شاعر أمريكي يحوز إعجاب الأمريكين والأوربين على حد سواء. اعتبر علماء النفس أشعاره دراسة خصبة لمكونات النفس البشرية. اعتبره النقاد فيلسوفاً،إذ كان يملك النظرة الشاملة المتكاملة إلى الكون والأحياء، وهي النظرة التي احتوت الإنسان والمجتمع والعلاقة بينهما من حب وديموقراطية وغموض وصراع.
في نهايات القرن التاسع عشر وبدايات القرن العشرين كان العالم العربي يعيش فترة تحوّل هامة على مختلف بناه الثقافية، وكان الأدب العربي - لا سيما الشعر- يشهد محاولات جادة لإخراج الشعر من أسر الصناعة والتقليد التي كبلته طويلا، وتزعم أمين الريحاني وجبران خليل جبران حركة تجديد الأدب العربي في المهجر. وبحكم وجودهما في الولايات المتحدة وإتقان اللغة الإنجليزية توفر لهما الاطلاع على أعمال ويتمان ، وهو ما فتح المجال أمام الريحاني ومن بعده جبران لابتكار نمط شعري جديد أسماه الرياحني الشعر الحرّ،وأطلق عليه النقاد لاحقا اسم الشعر المنثور أو قصيدة النثر . وقد جمع الريحاني نصوصه التي كتبها متأثرا بويتمان في كتابه هتاف الاودية الذي يعده النقاد أول ديوان في الشعر المنثور في الأدب العربي،وتبع جبران خليل جبران الريحاني في تأثره بويتمان وسار على نهجه[1] وفاته |
Walter "Walt" Whitman (May 31, 1819 – March 26, 1892) was an American poet, essayist and journalist. A humanist, he was a part of the transition between transcendentalism and realism, incorporating both views in his works. Whitman is among the most influential poets in the American canon, often called the father of free verse.[1] His work was very controversial in its time, particularly his poetry collection Leaves of Grass, which was described as obscene for its overt sexuality. واضح انه عاش طفولة كارثية ، فقر شديد وعدم استقرار وعلاقة خالة من المشاعر مع الأب القاسي والمدمن على الكحول. الأخ الأكبر فقد عقله وأصبح عنيف ووضع في مستشفى المجانين. مجموعة الاحداث وعمله المبكر في سن الحادية عشرة وانفصاله عن العائلة مبكرا وموت جدته التي كان يقضي معها بعض من اجمل اوقات الطفولة عوامل اثرت فيه وتسببت في ازمته.Born on Long Island, Whitman worked as a journalist, a teacher, a government clerk, and—in addition to publishing his poetry—was a volunteer nurse during the American Civil War. Early in his career, he also produced a temperance novel, Franklin Evans (1842). Whitman's major work, Leaves of Grass, was first published in 1855 with his own money. The work was an attempt at reaching out to the common person with an American epic. He continued expanding and revising it until his death in 1892. After a stroke towards the end of his life, he moved to Camden, New Jersey, where his health further declined. He died at age 72 and his funeral became a public spectacle.[2][3] Whitman's sexuality is often discussed alongside his poetry. Though biographers continue to debate his sexuality, he is usually described as either homosexual or bisexual in his feelings and attractions. However, there is disagreement among biographers as to whether Whitman had actual sexual experiences with men.[4] Whitman was concerned with politics throughout his life. He supported the Wilmot Proviso and opposed the extension of slavery generally. His poetry presented an egalitarian view of the races, and at one point he called for the abolition of slavery, but later he saw the abolitionist movement as a threat to democracy.[5] Early life Walter Whitman was born on May 31, 1819, in West Hills, Town of Huntington, Long Island, to parents with interests in Quaker thought, Walter and Louisa Van Velsor Whitman. The second of nine children,[6] he was immediately nicknamed "Walt" to distinguish him from his father.[7] Walter Whitman, Sr. named three of his seven sons after American leaders: Andrew Jackson, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson. The oldest was named Jesse and another boy died unnamed at the age of six months. The couple's sixth son, the youngest, was named Edward.[7] At age four, Whitman moved with his family from West Hills to Brooklyn, living in a series of homes, in part due to bad investments. Whitman looked back on his childhood as generally restless and unhappy, given his family's difficult economic status. One happy moment that he later recalled was when he was lifted in the air and kissed on the cheek by the Marquis de Lafayette during a celebration in Brooklyn on July 4, 1825. At age eleven Whitman concluded formal schooling.[11] He then sought employment for further income for his family; he was an office boy for two lawyers and later was an apprentice and printer's devil for the weekly Long Island newspaper the Patriot, edited by Samuel E. Clements. There, Whitman learned about the printing press and typesetting.[13] He may have written "sentimental bits" of filler material for occasional issues.[14] Clements aroused controversy when he and two friends attempted to dig up the corpse of Elias Hicks to create a plaster mold of his head.[15] Clements left the Patriot shortly afterward, possibly as a result of the controversy.[16] Early career The following summer Whitman worked for another printer, Erastus Worthington, in Brooklyn.[17] His family moved back to West Hills in the spring, but Whitman remained and took a job at the shop of Alden Spooner, editor of the leading Whig weekly newspaper the Long-Island Star.[17] While at the Star, Whitman became a regular patron of the local library, joined a town debating society, began attending theater performances,[18] and anonymously published some of his earliest poetry in the New York Mirror.[19] At age 16 in May 1835, Whitman left the Star and Brooklyn.[20] He moved to New York City to work as a compositor[21] though, in later years, Whitman could not remember where.[22] He attempted to find further work but had difficulty, in part due to a severe fire in the printing and publishing district,[22] and in part due to a general collapse in the economy leading up to the Panic of 1837.[23] In May 1836, he rejoined his family, now living in Hempstead, Long Island.[24] Whitman taught intermittently at various schools until the spring of 1838, though he was not satisfied as a teacher.[25] After his teaching attempts, Whitman went back to Huntington, New York to found his own newspaper, the Long Islander. Whitman served as publisher, editor, pressman, and distributor and even provided home delivery. After ten months, he sold the publication to E. O. Crowell, whose first issue appeared on July 12, 1839.[26] No copies of the Long-Islander published under Whitman survive.[27] By the summer of 1839, he found a job as a typesetter in Jamaica, Queens with the Long Island Democrat, edited by James J. Brenton.[26] He left shortly thereafter, and made another attempt at teaching from the winter of 1840 to the spring of 1841.[28] One story, possibly apocryphal, tells of Whitman's being chased away from a teaching job in Southold, New York in 1840. After a local preacher called him a "Sodomite", Whitman was allegedly tarred and feathered. Biographer Justin Kaplan notes that the story is likely untrue, because Whitman regularly vacationed in the town thereafter.[29] Biographer Jerome Loving calls the incident a "myth".[30] During this time, Whitman published a series of ten editorials, called "Sun-Down Papers—From the Desk of a Schoolmaster", in three newspapers between the winter of 1840 and July 1841. In these essays, he adopted a constructed persona, a technique he would employ throughout his career.[31] Whitman moved to New York City in May, initially working a low-level job at the New World, working under Park Benjamin, Sr. and Rufus Wilmot Griswold.[32] He continued working for short periods of time for various newspapers; in 1842 he was editor of the Aurora and from 1846 to 1848 he was editor of the Brooklyn Eagle.[33] He also contributed freelance fiction and poetry throughout the 1840s.[34] Whitman lost his position at the Brooklyn Eagle in 1848 after siding with the free-soil "Barnburner" wing of the Democratic party against the newspaper's owner, Isaac Van Anden, who belonged to the conservative, or "Hunker", wing of the party.[35] Whitman was a delegate to the 1848 founding convention of the Free Soil Party. == . Walter Whitman Sr. was of English stock, and his marriage in 1816 to Louisa Van Velsor, of Dutch and Welsh stock, led to what Walt always considered a fertile tension in the Whitman children between a more smoldering, brooding Puritanical temperament and a sunnier, more outgoing Dutch disposition. Whitman’s father was a stern and sometimes hot-tempered man, maybe an alcoholic, whom Whitman respected but for whom he never felt a great deal of affection. His mother, on the other hand, served throughout his life as his emotional touchstone. There was a special affectional bond between Whitman and his mother, and the long correspondence between them records a kind of partnership in attempting to deal with the family crises that mounted over the years, as Jesse became mentally unstable and violent and eventually had to be institutionalized, as Hannah entered a disastrous marriage with an abusive husband, as Andrew became an alcoholic and married a prostitute before dying of ill health in his 30s, and as Edward required increasingly dedicated care. While Whitman’s parents were not members of any religious denomination, Quaker thought always played a major role in Whitman’s life, in part because of the early influence of Hicks, and in part because his mother Louisa’s family had a Quaker background, especially Whitman’s grandmother Amy Williams Van Velsor, whose death—the same year Whitman first heard Hicks—hit young Walt hard, since he had spent many happy days at the farm of his grandmother and colorful grandfather, Major Cornelius Van Velsor. مأزوم. |
by Laurence Sterne, Ireland, (1713-1768) The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (or, more briefly, Tristram Shandy) is a novel by Laurence Sterne. It was published in nine volumes, the first two appearing in 1759, and seven others following over the next seven years (vols. 3 and 4, 1761; vols. 5 and 6, 1762; vols. 7 and 8, 1765; vol. 9, 1767). Synopsis and styleAs its title suggests, the book is ostensibly Tristram's narration of his life story. But it is one of the central jokes of the novel that he cannot explain anything simply, that he must make explanatory diversions to add context and colour to his tale, to the extent that Tristram's own birth is not even reached until Volume III. Consequently, apart from Tristram as narrator, the most familiar and important characters in the book are his father Walter, his mother, his Uncle Toby, Toby's servant Trim, and a supporting cast of popular minor characters, including the chambermaid, Susannah, Doctor Slop, and the parson, Yorick. Most of the action is concerned with domestic upsets or misunderstandings, which find humour in the opposing temperaments of Walter—splenetic, rational, and somewhat sarcastic—and Uncle Toby, who is gentle, uncomplicated, and a lover of his fellow man. In between such events, Tristram as narrator finds himself discoursing at length on sexual practices, insults, the influence of one's name, and noses as well as explorations of obstetrics, siege warfare, and philosophy as he struggles to marshal his material and finish the story of his life. Though Tristram is always present as narrator and commentator, the book contains little of his life, only the story of a trip through France and accounts of the four comical mishaps which shaped the course of his life from an early age:
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لورنس ستيرن على الرغم من أن الروائي البريطاني لورنس ستيرن قد أنتج عملين أدبيين فقط، إلا أنه صنف من أهم الروائيين في القرن الثامن عشر، بسبب تجاربه حول بنية ومنظومة الرواية. ولم يكتب كلاً من روايته «حياة وآراء تريسترام شاندي» التي تضم تسعة أجزاء ونشرت ما بين 1760 و1767 وروايته الثانية«رحلة مؤثرة عبر فرنسا وإيطاليا » التي نشرت عام 1768،إلا خلال الأعوام التسعة الأخيرة من حياته. ولد لورنس في 24 نوفمبر عام 1713 في كولنميل في إيرلندا، وأمضى الأعوام العشرة الأولى من طفولته متنقلا بين مدن عدة وذلك تبعا لعمل والده، ولم تتجاوز مدة إقامته في أي مكان العام. ولم ير والده بعد التحاقه بمدرسة قرب هاليفاكس في بريطانيا مطلقا. درس بعد ذلك علم اللاهوت في كلية كامبردج وتخرج عام 1737.كان من المقرر أن يصبح لورنس واعظا دينيا وتسلم وظيفته كقس في عام 1738 في يوركشاير. وتزوج في عام 1741، وكان كلا الزوجين يعانيان من مرض الالتهاب الرئوي. وبتأثير من عمه الدكتور جاكس ستيرن، بدأ العمل كصحافي سياسي. عاش ستيرن ما يقارب من عشرين عاما في ستاتون، ونظرا لفشل زواجه فقد ارتبط بعدد من العلاقات العاطفية. وحينما بدأ بكتابة الجزء الأول من روايته الشهيرة «تريسترام شاندي» توفيت والدته واشتد المرض على زوجته، فيما كان يعاني هو بالإضافة إلى مرضه من التناقض الحاد بين حياته الشخصية وهويته الدينية، مثل بطل رواية هوثرون في روايته «الحرف القرمزي» حيث يواجه القس صراعه مع ضميره. ويمكن القول أنه وجد في الكتابة خلاصه من القلق والتوتر الذي كان يهيمن على حياته. وفي عام 1762 غادر إلى فرنسا للعلاج، وهناك استقبله الشعب الفرنسي باحتفاء كبير للشهرة الواسعة التي حققتها الأجزاء الأولى من روايته. وفي فرنسا بدأ بكتابة روايته الثانية «رحلة مؤثرة عبر فرنسا وإيطاليا»، التي نشرت في بداية عام 1768. وقبل مضي عام على نشرها تدهورت حالته الصحية وتوفي في 18 مارس وكان في الرابعة والخمسين. ومن أسباب شهرته في بريطانيا وفي كل البلدان الأوروبية هو توجهه في الكتابة للطبقة الوسطى من الشعب على عكس أدباء عصره، ويعتبر النقاد ستيرن بمثابة الشخص الذي عبر بكتابته الجسر من طبقة الارستقراطيين إلى قراء الطبقة الوسطى. ويذكر الناقد إيان كامبل روس من جامعة برنستون في دراسته التي قدمها حول هذا الكاتب، بأن من أسباب شهرة روايته هو نجاحه في ابتكار تقنيات عدة لتسويقها. ومن هذه التقنيات التي شدت القاريء أن يختار مثلا وضع صفحة سوداء بالكامل بعد حديث بطل الرواية عن وفاة إنسان عزيز عليه، وهذا السواد هو تعبير عن حزنه. وكذلك اختياره لأن تكون الصفحة التي تلي الحوار بشأن العلاقة بين الرجل والمرأة، إن كانت العاطفة أم الرغبة هي التي تربط بينهما، ويقترح على القاريء أن يدون رأيه الخاص في الصفحة الفارغة بكل أمانة. وبالعودة إلى روايته «تريسترام شاندي» التي نشرها كما ذكرنا ضمن تسعة أجزاء يتضمن كل جزء ما يقارب من ستين صفحة، يصعب وصفها كما ذكر العديد من النقاد. فهي في الواقع لا تعتمد على أسس الرواية التقليدية، فمن الصعب تحديد حبكة القصة. وهي أقرب إلى أدب السيرة الذاتية، ولكن في ذات الوقت يصعب على القاريء بعد انتهائه من قراءة الرواية أن يعرف أي شيء يذكر عن حياة بطلها شاندي، فكل ما يعرفه عنه يتلخص في يوم ولادته، واليوم الذي عانى فيه من حادث حينما كان في الخامسة من عمره، ورحلته عبر فرنسا. كما لا يتوفر للقاريء معلومات كافية ليحكم إن كانت المرأة جيني التي ذكرت في مواقع عدة هي زوجته أم لا. ومن خلال عنوان الكتاب يتجلى مضمون القصة المتمثل في عرض آراء وأفكار والد شاندي وليس هو شخصيا. كما أن الأجزاء الثلاثة الأولى كتبت قبل ولادة شاندي وفيها يتناول شخصية والده وعمه ولاحقا أخيه. والرواية عبارة عن سرد لذكريات لنبيل من القرن الثامن عشر، وتتضمن الكثير من المواقف الكوميدية والطريفة، وإن كانت تتطلب من القاريء الكثير من التركيز للانتباه لها. وتتجلى أهمية هذا العمل عبر تطوير لورنس لبنية الرواية من خلال أسلوب السرد، الذي تبناه العديد من الكتاب في إطار أدب الحداثة وما بعد الحداثة، فالموضوع لا يرتبط بشخص البطل، بل بالمواضيع التي يحلو للكاتب تناولها، والتي تكون متفرعة عن المحور، إلى جانب حوارات متخيلة مع قراء ونقاد. ويهدف من خلال بنية الرواية إدخال القاريء إلى عقل شاندي، وهو الأسلوب الأدبي الذي تبناه كتاب القرن العشرين، حيث يتدفق النص من خلال الوعي الداخلي للشخصيات. ويتخلل العمل كما ذكرنا الكثير من الحوارات مع القراء والتعليق على ما الأحداث، ومثال على ذلك، «لقد وعدت بكتابة الفصل الخاص بالأزرار، ولكن علي قبلها أن أقدم لكم الفصل الخاص بخادمات الغرف». ومن استخدم اسلوبا مشابها لأسلوبه في الأدب الانجليزي، الكاتب جيمس جويس في رواية يوليوس. فكلاهما اعتمد على العلاقة المتشابكة بين الكاتب والقاريء. وكلاهما تميز بروح السخرية ، وإن كان البطل شاندي يفتقد إلى الجدية وطبيعة التشاؤم في شخصية بطل رواية جويس المدعو ليوبولد بلوم. كما أن الأول نتاج القرن الثامن عشر، والثاني نتاج القرن العشرين. وتجلت الصدمة التي شكلتها الرواية في المجتمع الفيكتوري من خلال المواقف الصريحة الفجة التي عرضها المؤلف والتي تحتمل على الدوام تأويلات عدة، مع طرحه للعديد من التساؤلات حول الواقع السياسي والاجتماعي ومفهوم الحياة والثقة والأمانة وذلك من خلال تساؤل الرواية في شخص بطلها، هل الرجل يتبع القواعد؟ أم أن الآخرين يتبعونه؟ تلك التساؤلات قدمها ستيرن من خلال حياة عائلة البطل، التي تروي بصورة ما قصته. فهو ابن جندي توفي في معركة في جامايكا، وتمحورت طفولة شاندي في حياة شخوص العائلة العسكرية، ورؤيتهم للحرب من خلال منظور قادتها أو جنودها، وذلك عبر القصص التي كان يسردها عمه توبي وهو من جيل المحاربين القدماء الذين سرحوا من الخدمة بعد انتهاء حرب السنوات السبع. أما شقيق عمه توبي ووالد شاندي فهو القس وولتر شاندي الواقعي بأفكاره، الذي يحاول السيطرة على كل احتمالات المغامرة في حياة ابنه. وقد عمد ستيرن من خلال شخصيته شاندي إلى إيقاع النقاد في حيرة من أمرهم، فعمله إما يتجاوز قدراتهم أو أنه أدنى من إثارة اهتمامهم. وعلى عكس بريطانيا، فقد استقبل النقاد في ألمانيا روايته بترحيب وإعجاب، وعلى رأسهم جوته ورواد الحركة الرومانسية، كما تأثر بعمله كارل ماركس الذي حاول محاكاة عمله في رواية. ولم يحظ ستيرن بتقديره ككاتب في بريطانيا إلا في بداية القرن العشرين، حيث وصفته فيرجينيا وولف بقولها، «إنه أقرب ما يمكن من الحياة»، أما جيمس جويس فقال عنه بأنه «رجل الريف». رشا المالح |
Laurence Sterne was born 24 November 1713 in Clonmel, County Tipperary. His father, Roger Sterne, was an Ensign in a British regiment recently returned from Dunkirk. Roger's regiment was disbanded on the day of Sterne’s birth, and within six months the family had returned to Yorkshire in northern England. In July 1715, the family moved back to Ireland, having "decamped with Bag & Baggage for Dublin", in Sterne's words.[1] The first decade of Sterne’s life was spent moving from place to place as his father was reassigned throughout Ireland. During this period Sterne never lived in one place for more than a year. In addition to Clonmel and Dublin, his family also lived in, among other places, Wicklow Town, Annamoe (County Wicklow), Drogheda (County Louth), Castlepollard (County Westmeath), and Carrickfergus (County Antrim).[2] In 1724, his father took Sterne to Roger's wealthy brother, Richard, so that Sterne could attend Hipperholme Grammar School near Halifax; Sterne never saw his father again as Roger was ordered to Jamaica where he died of a fever in 1731. Sterne was admitted to a sizarship at Jesus College, Cambridge, in July 1733 at the age of 20. His great-grandfather Richard Sterne had been the Master of the college as well as the Archbishop of York. Sterne graduated with a degree of Bachelor of Arts in January 1737; and returned in the summer of 1740 to be awarded his Master of Arts degree. Sterne seems to have been destined to become a clergyman, and was ordained as a deacon in March 1737 and as a priest in August, 1738. Shortly thereafter Sterne was awarded the vicarship living of Sutton-on-the-Forest in Yorkshire (1713–1768). Sterne married Elizabeth Lumley in 1741. Both were ill with consumption. In 1743, he was presented to the neighbouring living of Stillington by Rev. Richard Levett, Prebendary of Stillington, who was patron of the living.[4] Subsequently Sterne did duty both there and at Sutton. He was also a prebendary of York Minster. Sterne’s life at this time was closely tied with his uncle, Dr. Jaques Sterne, the Archdeacon of Cleveland and Precentor of York Minster. Sterne’s uncle was an ardent Whig, and urged Sterne to begin a career of political journalism which resulted in some scandal for Sterne and, eventually, a terminal falling-out between the two men. Jaques Sterne was a powerful clergyman but a mean-tempered man and a rabid politician. In 1741–42 Sterne wrote political articles supporting the administration of Sir Robert Walpole for a newspaper founded by his uncle but soon withdrew from politics in disgust. His uncle became his archenemy, thwarting his advancement whenever possible. Sterne lived in Sutton for twenty years, during which time he kept up an intimacy which had begun at Cambridge with John Hall-Stevenson, a witty and accomplished bon vivant, owner of Skelton Hall in the Cleveland district of Yorkshire. Without Stevenson, Sterne might have been a more decorous parish priest, but then might never have written Tristram Shandy. It was while living in the countryside, having failed in his attempts to supplement his income as a farmer and struggling with tuberculosis, that Sterne began work on his most famous novel, The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, the first volumes of which were published in 1759. Sterne was at work on his celebrated comic novel during the year that his mother died, his wife was seriously ill, and he was ill himself with consumption. The publication of Tristram Shandy made Sterne famous in London and on the continent. He was delighted by the attention, and spent part of each year in London, being fêted as new volumes appeared. Indeed, Baron Fauconberg rewarded Sterne by appointing him as the perpetual curate of Coxwold, North Yorkshire. In 1759, to support his dean in a church squabble, Sterne wrote A Political Romance (later called The History of a Good Warm Watch-Coat), a Swiftian satire of dignitaries of the spiritual courts. At the demands of embarrassed churchmen, the book was burned. Thus, Sterne lost his chances for clerical advancement but discovered his real talents; until the completion of this first work, "he hardly knew that he could write at all, much less with humour so as to make his reader laugh".[5] Having discovered his talent, at the age of 46, he turned over his parishes to a curate, and gave himself up to the exercise and delight of humor writing for the rest of his life. He began Tristram Shandy. He wrote as fast as he possibly could, composing the first 18 chapters between January and March 1759.[5] An initial, sharply satiric version was rejected by Robert Dodsley, the London printer, just when Sterne's personal life was upset. His mother and uncle both died. His wife had a nervous breakdown and threatened suicide. Sterne continued his comic novel, but every sentence, he said, was “written under the greatest heaviness of heart.” In this mood, he softened the satire and recounted details of Tristram's opinions, eccentric family and ill-fated childhood with a sympathetic humour, sometimes hilarious, sometimes sweetly melancholic—a comedy skirting tragedy |
Laurence Sterne was born 24 November 1713 in Clonmel, County Tipperary. His father, Roger Sterne, was an Ensign in a British regiment recently returned from Dunkirk. Roger's regiment was disbanded on the day of Sterne’s birth, and within six months the family had returned to Yorkshire in northern England. In July 1715, the family moved back to Ireland, having "decamped with Bag & Baggage for Dublin", in Sterne's words The first decade of Sterne’s life was spent moving from place to place as his father was reassigned throughout Ireland. During this period Sterne never lived in one place for more than a year. In addition to Clonmel and Dublin, his family also lived in, among other places, Wicklow Town, Annamoe (County Wicklow), Drogheda (County Louth), Castlepollard (County Westmeath), and Carrickfergus (County Antrim). In 1724, his father took Sterne to Roger's wealthy brother, Richard, so that Sterne could attend Hipperholme Grammar School near Halifax; Sterne never saw his father again as Roger was ordered to Jamaica where he died of a fever in 1731. == - طفولة غير مستقرة. تنقل مع والديه في مناطق عديدة . سكن عند عمه من عمر 11 للدراسة ، بينما غادر والده فيمهمة إلى جاميكا وتوفي هناك عام 1731 دون أن يراه لورنس مرةأخرى. يتيم اجتماعي منذ سن 11 بسبب انفصاله عن والديه، ثم يتيم فعلي في سن 18. |
by Vladimir Nabokov, Russia/United States, (1899-1977) Lolita is a novel by Vladimir Nabokov, written in English and published in 1955 in Paris and 1958 in New York. It was later translated by its Russian-native author into Russian. The novel is notable for its controversial subject: the protagonist and unreliable narrator, middle-aged literature professor Humbert Humbert, is obsessed with the 12-year-old Dolores Haze, with whom he becomes sexually involved after he becomes her stepfather. His private nickname for Dolores is Lolita.The book is also notable for its writing style. The narrative is highly subjective as Humbert draws on his fragmented memories, employing a sophisticated prose style, while attempting to gain the reader's sympathy through his sincerity and melancholy, although near the end of the story Humbert refers to himself as a "maniac" who "deprived" Dolores "of her childhood", and he shortly thereafter states "the most miserable of family lives was better than the parody of incest" in which they were involved. After its publication, Lolita attained a classic status, becoming one of the best-known and most controversial examples of 20th century literature. The name "Lolita" has entered pop culture to describe a sexually precocious girl. The novel was adapted to film by Stanley Kubrickin 1962, and again in 1997 by Adrian Lyne. It has also been adapted several times for stage and has been the subject of two operas, two ballets, and an acclaimed but failed Broadway musical. Lolita is included on Time's list of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005. It is fourth on the Modern Library's 1998 list of the 100 Best Novels of the 20th century. It was also included as one of The 100 Best Books of All Time. The novel's fictional "Foreword" states that Humbert Humbert dies of coronary thrombosis upon finishing his manuscript, the events of the novel. It also states Mrs. Richard Schiller [Lolita] dies giving birth to a stillborn girl on Christmas Day, 1952. ==Humbert Humbert, a literary scholar, has harbored a long-time obsession with young girls, or "nymphets". He suggests that this was caused by the premature death of a childhood sweetheart, Annabel Leigh. After an unsuccessful marriage and having recovered from a mental breakdown, Humbert moves to the small New England town of Ramsdale to write. He rents a room in the house of Charlotte Haze, a widow. While Charlotte shows him around the house, Humbert meets her 12-year-old daughter, Dolores, affectionately known as "Lo", "Lola", or "Dolly" with whom he immediately becomes infatuated, partly due to her uncanny resemblance to Annabel, and privately nicknames her "Lolita". Humbert stays at the house only to remain near her. While he is obsessed with Dolores, he disdains her crassness and preoccupation with contemporary American popular culture, such as teen movies and comic books. While Dolores is away at summer camp, Charlotte, who has fallen in love with Humbert, tells him that he must either marry her or move out. Humbert agrees to marry Charlotte in order to continue living near Lolita. Charlotte is oblivious to Humbert's distaste for her, as well as his lust for Lolita, until she reads his diary. Learning of Humbert's true feelings and intentions, Charlotte plans to flee with Lolita and threatens to expose Humbert as a "detestable, abominable, criminal fraud." However, fate intervenes on Humbert's behalf, for as she runs across the street in a state of shock, Charlotte is struck and killed by a passing car. Humbert picks Lolita up from camp, pretending that Charlotte has been hospitalized. Rather than return to Charlotte's home, Humbert takes Lolita to a hotel, where he gives her sleeping pills. As he waits for the pills to take effect, he wanders through the hotel and meets a man who seems to know who he is. Humbert excuses himself from the strange conversation and returns to the room. There, he tries molesting Lolita but finds that the sedative is too mild. Instead, she initiates sex the next morning, having slept with a boy at camp. Later, Humbert reveals to Lolita that Charlotte is dead, giving her no choice but to accept her stepfather into her life on his terms or face foster care. Lolita and Humbert drive around the country, moving from state to state and motel to motel. Humbert sees the necessity of maintaining a common base of guilt to keep their relations secret, and wants denial to become second nature for Lolita. He tells her if he is arrested, she will become a ward of the state and lose all her clothes and belongings. He also bribes her for sexual favors, though he knows that she does not reciprocate his love and shares none of his interests. After a year touring North America, the two settle down in another New England town, where Lolita is enrolled in a girls school. Humbert becomes very possessive and strict, forbidding Lolita to take part in after-school activities or to associate with boys. However, most of the townspeople see this as the action of a loving and concerned, though old-fashioned, parent. Lolita begs to be allowed to take part in the school play, and Humbert reluctantly grants his permission in exchange for more sexual favors. The play is written by Clare Quilty. He is said to have attended a rehearsal and been impressed by Lolita's acting. Just before opening night, Lolita and Humbert have a ferocious argument, and Lolita runs away while Humbert assures the neighbors everything is fine. He searches frantically until he finds her exiting a phone booth. She is in a bright, pleasant mood, saying that she tried to reach him at home and that a "great decision has been made." They go to buy drinks and Lolita tells Humbert she doesn't care about the play, rather, wants to leave town and resume their travels. As Lolita and Humbert drive westward again, Humbert gets the feeling that their car is being tailed and becomes increasingly paranoid, suspecting that Lolita is conspiring with others in order to escape. She falls ill and must convalesce in a hospital while Humbert stays in a nearby motel, without Lolita for the first time in years. One night, Lolita disappears from the hospital, with the staff telling Humbert that her "uncle" checked her out. Humbert embarks upon a frantic search to find Lolita and her abductor, but eventually gives up. During this time, Humbert has a two-year relationship (ending in 1952) with an adult named Rita, whom he describes as a "kind, good sport." She "solemnly approve[s]" of his search for Lolita. Rita figuratively dies when Humbert receives a letter from Lolita, now 17, who tells him that she is married, pregnant, and in desperate need of money. Humbert goes to see Lolita, giving her money in exchange for the name of the man who abducted her. She reveals the truth: Clare Quilty, an acquaintance of Charlotte's, the writer of the school play, and the man Lolita claims to have loved, checked her out of the hospital after following them throughout their travels and tried making her star in one of his pornographic films. When she refused, he threw her out. She worked odd jobs before meeting and marrying her husband, who knows nothing about her past. Humbert asks Lolita to leave her husband, Dick, and live with him, to which she refuses. He gives her a large sum of money anyway, which secures her future. As he leaves she smiles and shouts goodbye in a "sweet, American" way. Humbert finds Quilty, whom he intends to kill, at his mansion. Before doing so, he first wants Quilty to understand why he must die, for he took advantage of Humbert, a sinner, and he took advantage of a disadvantage. Eventually, Humbert shoots him several times (throughout which Quilty is bargaining for his life in a witty, though bizarre, manner). Once Quilty has died, Humbert exits the house. Shortly after, he is arrested for driving on the wrong side of the road and swerving. The narrative closes with Humbert's final words to Lolita in which he wishes her well, and reveals the novel in its metafiction to be the memoirs of his life, only to be published after he and Lolita have both died. |
رواية لوليتا ترجمة وليد مال الله مر خمسون عاماً على نشر رواية (لوليتا) للروائي فلاديمير نابوكوف والتي تروي قصة حب رجل ناضج لابنته الجميلة ذات الاثني عشر ربيعاً، اذ بيع ما يربو عن خمسين مليون نسخة عند طباعة هذه الرواية والتي تعتبر أحد الأعمال الأدبية الرائعة. عنوان الرواية مصطلح اختلقه الكاتب الروائي فلاديمير ودخلت الكلمة آنذاك في مصطلحات اللغة الانكليزية الدارجة، أما الرواية التي كتبت بالأصل باللغة الإنكليزية فقد اقتبسها مخرجو السينما ودخلت القصة السينما من أوسع أبوابها مرتين: الأولى استخدم الرواية المخرج ستانلي كوبريك عام 1962، والمرة الثانية استخدمها المخرج أدريان لين عام 1997، وقد جذبت أحداث القصة ملايين المشاهدين إلى صالة العرض، أما الناشر الأمريكي (مطبعة فانتاج) فقد باع من هذه الرواية المطبوعة ما يقرب من 500 ألف نسخة وبطبعة جديدة. ويذكر أن الروائي فلاديمير نابكوف كان يعمل مدرساً في جامعة كورنيل الأمريكية، وأكد أحد تلامذته الذي كان طالباً في جامعة كورنيل في نهاية الخمسينيات من القرن الماضي في الولايات المتحدة (ستيفن باركر) أن الأستاذ فلاديمير نابكوف خدم اللغة الإنكليزية بشكل كبير، كما وأعجب بالاستعمال المتميز للغة الإنكليزية في الرواية مع أن لغة الكاتب الأم هي الروسية، وقال (ديمتري) الولد البكر للروائي وهو الآن بعمر71 سنة ويعيش في مدينة مونترو السويسرية إن (الرواية عبارة عن عمل فني كبير يبقى مؤثرا وخالدا، كما نجد في الرواية مواضيع وأحداث كثيرة تتعايش فيما بينها، الشعر، الفكاهة، الحب والمأساة). بدأ الكاتب فلاديمير نابكوف كتابة الرواية في نهاية سنوات الأربعينيات وكان يعلم عندما انتهى من كتابتها بأنها ستثير مناقشات وجدل في الساحة الأدبية في أمريكا في ذلك الوقت، وقد فكر نابكوف بنشر الرواية في البداية باسم مستعار لكي لا يشوه سمعة الجامعة التي يعمل فيها، وقام الروائي في كانون الثاني عام 1953 بإرسال مخطوطة الرواية والتي تألفت من 450 صفحة إلى مطبعة (فاكنك) في مدينة نيويورك،حينها أخبروه في المطبعة بأن كتاباته رائعة ولكن الناشر الذي سيقبل بنشرها سيجازف بشيئين إما بالغرامة المالية أو بالسجن، وهكذا فشل في نشر الرواية في أمريكا بعد مروره على خمس مطابع أمريكية أخرى رفضت نشرها . بعدها سافر الكاتب نابكوف الى فرنسا لنشر الرواية في بلد الفنون باريس وقدم روايته إلى (موريس جيرودياس) المؤسس والمالك لمطبعة (أولمبيا)، حيث تم نشر الرواية باللغة الإنكليزية في باريس بعد أن وقع نابكوف عقداً مع المطبعة ونشرت رواية لوليتا باسمه الحقيقي وظهرت الرواية في المكتبات الفرنسية عام 1955. كانت الرواية غير معروفة في البداية ولم تلاحظ من قبل النقاد، إلا أن قدّم لها الكاتب (غراهام غرين) في جريدة (صندي تايمز) اللندنية واعتبرها واحدة من أفضل ثلاث كتب نشرت في عام 1955. منعت الحكومة الفرنسية عام 1956 الرواية من المكتبات ثم رفع الحظر عنها بعد سنتين، ونشرت الرواية في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية عام 1958 ووجدت ترحيباً كبيراً من قبل النقاد الأمريكيين أمثال (دورثي باركر، وليم ستيرون) وآخرين. وقد اشتهرت الرواية في أمريكا وأصبحت الرواية الأولى بعد رواية (ذهب مع الريح)، وقد بيع من أعدادها في تلك الفترة ما يزيد عن 100 ألف نسخة خلال ثلاثة أسابيع. وحصل الروائي الكبير على ثروة كبيرة مكنتّه من ترك التدريس ، ليقيم في إحدى المدن السويسرية ويتفرغ كلياً للكتابة، إلى أن توفي فيها عام 1977. = ملخص عام للرواي لوليتا: |
فلاديمير نابوكوف سيرة23 أبريل 1899 في سانت بطرسبرغ بروسيا - 2 يوليو 1977 في مونترو بسويسرا) كاتب روسي أمريكي. أعماله الأولية كتبت باللغة الروسية، وبعدما اشتهر عالمياً أصبح يكتب رواياته بالإنجليزية. عرفت أعماله بكونها معقدة، حيث أن حبكة القصص والكلمات المستخدمة فيها كثيرة التعقيد. له أيضاً مساهمات في مجالات أخرى مثل قشريات الجناح والشطرنج. ولد الكاتب الروسي فلاديمير نابوكوف يوم 10 أبريل 1899م، في سان بطرسبورج لعائلة اريستقراطية، فأبوه أحد كبار رجال القانون الروس في عصره، وجده وزير سابق من العهد القيصري، وقد تلقى نابوكوف مع إخوته تعليما ثلاثي اللغات بالروسية والإنجليزية والفرنسية، كما وقع في سن مبكر تحت تأثير أستاذه للأدب الروسي الشاعر والناقد فاسيلي هيبيوس. ومع قيام ثورة أكتوبر 1917م، التحق نابوكوف للدراسة بكلية تيرنتي في جامعة كامبريدج حيث درس العلوم واللغات والأدب الوسيط، وتفرغ للأدب سنة 1922م بعد ما اغتال عملاء سوفييت والده، فترجم إلى الروسية عددا من الروايات الأوروبية. ظهرت أولى رواياته عام 1925 تحت عنوان "ماتشنكا"، وفي سنة 1926م ظهرت مسرحيته المعادية للسوفييت "رجل سوفييتي" واتبعها بروايته "الملك ــ السيدة ــ الخادم" سنة 1931م، وكانت هذه الفترة أخصب فترات عطاء نابوكوف الإبداعي حيث نشر عمله "الغلطة" 1932، ثم عاد سنة 1934م ونشر أعمالا ملفتة للانتباه مثل "سباق مجنون" و"دعوة للعذاب" وفي هذه الأخيرة عداء شديد للحكم التوليتاري السوفييتي، إلا أنه كتب سنة 1938م لأول مرة رواية باللغة الإنجليزية هي "سيرة سباستيان نايت الحقيقية". سنة 1939م غادر إلى أمريكا للعمل بجامعة استاندفورد، ثم درس الأدب الروسي بجامعات بوسطن وهارفارد، كما نشر سنة 1944م دراسة معمقة عن "جوجول"، ولما حصل على الجنسية الأمريكية سنة 1945م، ثم تعيينه في جامعة كورنيل التي نشر منها عمله "الثلمة" وبدأ في كتابة سيرته الذاتية التي ظهرت سنة 1951م بعنوان "من الشاطئ الآخر. سنة 1955 نشر روايته "لوليتا" التي منعت أول الأمر في أمريكا، وهذا ما حدا بنابوكوف إلى نشر رواية "ابنين" سنة 1957م. وفي سنة 1958م أصبحت رواية "لوليتا" كتاب الجيب في أمريكا، وباع حقوق تحويلها إلى فيلم بمبلغ 150 ألف دولار، وقد تفرغ في هوليوود سنة 1960م لكتابة سيناريو لهذا الفيلم، إلا أنه سافر لأوروبا 1962 حيث كتب "النار الخافت" ،وفي سنة 1969م كتب أطول رواياته "آدا". توفي الكاتب الروسي فلاديمير نابوكوف يوم 2 يوليو 1977م، ومنذ ذلك التاريخ ظهرت عن نابوكوف عشرات الكتب بمختلف اللغات، وكان من أبرزها كتابا بريان بويد "نابوكوف السنوات الروسية" 1990م و"السنوات الأمريكية" 1991م، وكتاب بالروسية ألفه د. بورلاكا 1997م تحت عنوان "نابوكوف: مع أم ضد"، وكتاب "نابوكوف" ضمن سلسلة "كتاب كل الأزمنة" بفرنسا 1995م، وأيضا نابوكوف واستبدادية المؤلف لموريس كوتيرييه 1995م، ثم عمل متميز عن سيرته لأندريوفيلد هو" نابوكوف: حياة كاملة أو تكاد"، وأيضا "نابوكوف والهجرة المنشودة" 1994م لدانييل سوتون. |
Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov (Russian: Влади́мир Влади́мирович Набо́ков, pronounced [vlɐˈdʲimʲɪr nɐˈbokəf] (listen); 22 April [O.S. 10 April] 1899c – 2 July 1977) was a Russian American novelist.[1] Nabokov's first nine novels were in Russian. He then rose to international prominence as a writer of English prose. He also made serious contributions as a lepidopterist and chess composer. Life and careerNabokov's Lolita (1955) is his most famous novel, and often considered his finest work in English. It exhibits the love of intricate word play and synesthetic detail that characterised all his works. The novel was ranked at No. 4 in the list of the Modern Library 100 Best Novels.[2] Pale Fire (1962) was ranked at No. 53 on the same list. His memoir, Speak, Memory, was listed No. 8 on the Modern Library nonfiction list.[3] He was a finalist for the National Book Award for Fiction seven times, but never won it. Russia Nabokov was born on 22 April 1899 (10 April 1899 Old-Style), in Saint Petersburg,b to a wealthy and prominent Saint Petersburg family of the minor nobility. He was the eldest of five children of liberal lawyer, statesman, and journalist Vladimir Dmitrievich Nabokov and his wife, Elena Ivanovna née Rukavishnikova. His cousins included the composer Nicolas Nabokov. He spent his childhood and youth in St. Petersburg and at the country estate Vyra near Siverskaya, south of the city. Nabokov's childhood, which he called "perfect", was remarkable in several ways. The family spoke Russian, English, and French in their household, and Nabokov was trilingual from an early age. In fact, much to his patriotic father's chagrin, Nabokov could read and write in English before he could in Russian. In Speak, Memory Nabokov recalls numerous details of his privileged childhood, and his ability to recall in vivid detail memories of his past was a boon to him during his permanent exile, as well as providing a theme that echoes from his first book, Mary, all the way to later works such as Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle. While the family was nominally Orthodox, they felt no religious fervor, and Vladimir was not forced to attend church after he lost interest. In 1916, Nabokov inherited the estate Rozhdestveno, next to Vyra, from his uncle Vasiliy Ivanovich Rukavishnikov ("Uncle Ruka" in Speak, Memory), but lost it in the revolution one year later; this was the only house he ever owned.[ The Rozhdestveno mansion, inherited from his uncle in 1916: Nabokov possessed it for less than a year before the revolution After the 1917 February Revolution, Vladimir Dmitrievich Nabokov became a secretary of the Russian Provisional Government, and the family was forced to flee the city after the Bolshevik Revolution for Crimea, not expecting to be away for very long. They lived at a friend's estate and in September 1918 moved to Livadiya; Nabokov's father was a minister of justice of the Crimean provisional government. After the withdrawal of the German Army (November 1918) and the defeat of the White Army in early 1919, the Nabokovs left for exile in western Europe. On 2 April 1919, the family left Sevastopol on the last ship. They settled briefly in England, where Vladimir enrolled in Trinity College, Cambridge, where he majored in zoology at first, and then Slavic and Romance languages. He later drew on his Cambridge experiences to write the novel Glory. In 1920, his family moved to Berlin, where his father set up the émigré newspaper Rul' (Rudder). Nabokov would follow to Berlin after his studies at Cambridge two years later. [AmericaBerlin years (1922–37) In March 1922, Nabokov's father was assassinated in Berlin by Russian monarchist Piotr Shabelsky-Bork as he was trying to shield the real target, Pavel Milyukov, a leader of the Constitutional Democratic Party-in-exile. This mistaken, violent death would echo again and again in Nabokov's fiction, where characters would meet their deaths under mistaken terms. (In Pale Fire, for example, one interpretation of the novel has an assassin mistakenly kill the poet John Shade, when his actual target is a fugitive European monarch.) Shortly after his father's death, Nabokov's mother and sister moved to Prague. Nabokov stayed in Berlin, where he had become a recognised poet and writer within the émigré community and published under the nom de plume V. Sirin. To supplement his scant writing income, he taught languages and gave tennis and boxing lessons.[4] Of his fifteen Berlin years, Dieter E. Zimmer wrote: "He never became fond of Berlin, and at the end intensely disliked it. He lived within the lively Russian community of Berlin that was more or less self-sufficient, staying on after it had disintegrated because he had nowhere else to go to. He knew little German. He knew few Germans except for landladies, shopkeepers, the petty immigration officials at the police headquarters."[5] In 1922 Nabokov became engaged to Svetlana Siewert; she broke off the engagement in early 1923, with her parents worrying that he could not provide for her.[6] In May 1923 he met a Jewish-Russian woman, Véra Evseyevna Slonim, at a charity ball in Berlin[4] and married her in April 1925.[4] Their only child, Dmitri, was born in 1934. In 1936, Véra lost her job because of the increasingly anti-Semitic environment; also in that year the assassin of Nabokov's father was appointed second-in-command of the Russian émigré group. In the same year Nabokov began seeking a job in the English-speaking world. In 1937 he left Germany for France, where he had a short affair with Russian émigrée Irina Guadanini; his family followed, making their last visit to Prague en route. They settled in Paris, but also spent time in Cannes, Menton, Cap d'Antibes, and Frejus. In May 1940 the Nabokov family fled from the advancing German troops to the United States on board the SS Champlain. The Nabokovs settled in Manhattan and Vladimir started a job at the American Museum of Natural History. In October he met Edmund Wilson, who became his close friend (until their falling out two decades later) and introduced Nabokov's work to American editors.[citation needed] Nabokov went to Wellesley College in 1941 as resident lecturer in comparative literature. The position, created specifically for him, provided an income and free time to write creatively and pursue his lepidoptery. Nabokov is remembered as the founder of Wellesley's Russian Department. The Nabokovs resided in Wellesley, Massachusetts during the 1941–42 academic year. In September 1942 they moved to Cambridge where they lived until June 1948. Following a lecture tour through the United States, Nabokov returned to Wellesley for the 1944–45 academic year as a lecturer in Russian. In 1945, he became a naturalised citizen of the United States. He served through the 1947–48 term as Wellesley's one-man Russian Department, offering courses in Russian language and literature. His classes were popular, due as much to his unique teaching style as to the wartime interest in all things Russian. At the same time he was the de facto curator of lepidoptery at Harvard University's Museum of Comparative Zoology.[7] After being encouraged by Morris Bishop, Nabokov left Wellesley in 1948 to teach Russian and European literature at Cornell University. Among his students at Cornell was future U.S. Supreme CourtJusticeRuth Bader Ginsburg, who later identified Nabokov as a major influence on her development as a writer.[8] Nabokov wrote Lolita while travelling on butterfly-collection trips in the western United States that he undertook every summer. Véra acted as "secretary, typist, editor, proofreader, translator and bibliographer; his agent, business manager, legal counsel and chauffeur; his research assistant, teaching assistant and professorial understudy"; when Nabokov attempted to burn unfinished drafts of Lolita, it was Véra who stopped him. He called her the best-humoured woman he had ever known.[4][9] In June 1953 Nabokov and his family went to Ashland, Oregon, renting a house on Meade Street from Professor Taylor, head of the Southern Oregon College Department of Social Science.[citation needed] There he finished Lolita and began writing the novel Pnin. He roamed the nearby mountains looking for butterflies, and wrote a poem called Lines Written in Oregon. On 1 October 1953, he and his family returned to Ithaca, New York, where he would later teach the young writer Thomas Pynchon == |
Novelist Vladimir Nabokov was born into a wealthy, upper-class family in St. Petersburg. Financial security assured an idyllic upbringing -- foreign nannies taught him English and French, chauffeurs carried him to the best schools, butterflies flew into his net begging for the pin. His father, a politician in what passed for a parliament under the Tsars, was long able to shield his family in politically uncertain times. But with the proletarian revolution in 1917 and subsequent overthrow of the ancien régime, the Nabokov family fled Russia, heading first to the Crimea and thence to England. There Nabokov attended Cambridge University, studying French and Russian literature, and upon graduation relocated with his family to Berlin. It was as a first-wave Russian emigrant in Weimar Germany that Nabokov began to make his name in letters. After giving up his unremarkable poetry, he soon found his niche as a composer of Russian prose. His novels were serialized in émigré journals; successes came with The Luzhin Defense (1930), about a chess prodigy slowly losing his mind, and exile postcard The Gift (1938). Also of note is Invitation to a Beheading (1938), an experimental prose poem about a prisoner facing execution. Dashed off during a four-week fugue, the story is a quasi-Gnostic parable about the strife of the soul in a heartless world, reflecting a disgust with looming totalitarianism that brings to mind Koestler and Orwell. Nabokov later claimed that his characters did not have any power in his novels and were instead his "galley slaves"[1], but Invitation's protagonist is somehow able to slip his chains. For all its strangeness, it is the most rewarding of his works in translation. Nabokov's own European period was not without its tragedies. Soon after he finished at Cambridge, his father, an active émigré politician, was shot dead interrupting an assassination attempt. His brother Sergei was arrested by the Nazis; a homosexual, he died in a concentration camp. With the rise of the Third Reich, Nabokov once again fled, this time with his wife and young son in tow, to Paris briefly and then onward to the United States. There Nabokov taught literature, at Wellesley and later Cornell, and continued his parallel study of butterflies at Harvard. Throughout his life, Nabokov remained engrossed by the insects. He was a published scholar on the subject, classifying several new species, and making quiet contributions to a field distinct from his literary career. Much of his ethnographic research on American postwar culture was conducted on endless road trips and cross-country bug-hunting expeditions, and put to use in the travelogue portion of Lolita (1955). - حصل في حياته انقلاب حاد حينما قامت الثورة الشيوعية علم 1917 حيث هرب مع عائلته الى المانيا وفقدت عائلته املاكها ومكانتها الاجتماعية وما لبث والده ان اغتيل وهو في سن 23 ثم اعتقل اخاه من قبل النازيين ومات في المعتقل. اضطر للهروب الى الولايات المتحدة. مأزوم. |
Love in the Time of Cholera (Spanish: El amor en los tiempos del cólera) is a novel by Nobel Prize-winning Colombian author Gabriel García Márquez first published in Spanish in 1985. Alfred A. Knopf published the English translation in 1988. An English-language movie adaptation was released in 2007. Plot summary The main characters of the novel are Florentino Ariza and Fermina Daza. She becomes enamoured with him during their youth but is forced to stop meeting him by her father. Eventually she weds Juvenal Urbino at the age of 21 (the "deadline" she had set for herself) because he seemed to offer her security and love. Urbino is a medical doctor devoted to science, modernity, and "order and progress." He is committed to the eradication of cholera and to the promotion of public works. He is a rational man whose life is organized precisely and who values his importance and reputation in society to the utmost. He is a herald of progress and modernization.[1] Urbino's function in the novel is to provide the counterpoint to Florentino Ariza’s archaic, boldly romantic love. Urbino proves in the end not to have been an entirely faithful husband, confessing one affair to Fermina many years into their marriage. Though the novel seems to suggest that Urbino's love for Fermina was never as spiritually chaste as Florentino Ariza's was, it also complicates Florentino's devotion by cataloging his many trysts and apparently a few, possibly genuine, loves. By the end of the book, Fermina comes to recognize Ariza's wisdom and maturity and their love is allowed to blossom during their old age. For most of their adult lives, however, their communication is limited to occasional public niceties. |
الحب في زمن الكوليرا)
بالأسبانية:El amor en los tiempos del cólera(رواية للكاتب الكولومبي جابرييل جارسيا ماركيز، نشرت عام 1985، وقد تم تحويلها إلى فيلم يحمل نفس العنوان. أحداث الرواية تروي أحداث الرواية قصة حب رجل وامرأة منذ المراهقة, وحتى ما بعد بلوغهما السبعين، وتصف ما تغير حولهما وما دار من حروب أهليه في منطقة(الكاريبي) وحتى تغيرات التكنولوجيا وتأثيراتها على نهر (مجدولينا) في الفترة من أواخر القرن التاسع عشر حتى العقود الأولى من القرن العشرين كما أنها ترصد بدقة الأحوال في هذه المنطقة من العالم من حيث الأحوال الأقتصادية والأدبية والديموغرافية دون التأثير على انتطام الأحداث وسيرها الدقيق مما يضعنا أمام كاتب يمسك بأدواته على احسن ما يكون.
يرسل لها رسائل عبارة عن تأملات في الحياة والزواج والشيخوخة تنال رضاها وتساعدها على تقبل الشيخوخة والموت بطريقة أفضل وتقبله شيئا فشيئا كصديق من عمرها تتبادل معه الأحاديث والتأملات فيما لا زال هو يرى فيها الحبيبة رغم تبدل مظهرها وذبولها وتجاوزهما عمر (70 عاما)ا، ويتصادقان مع تشجيع ابنها الذي يفرح لأن أمه وجدت رفيقا من عمرها يتفاهم معها ومع نقمة ابنتها التي ترى الحب في هذه السن (قذارة)، مما يؤدي بالأم لطردها من بيتها. الحب لذات الحب أحداث الرواية الأخيرة تدور في سفينة نهرية حيث يدعو (فلورنتينو اريثا) حبيبته لرحلة نهرية على سفينة تمتلكها شركته فتوافق، وهناك يقترب منها أكثر وتدرك بأنها تحبه رغم شعورها بأن عمرها (70 عاما)لا يصلح للحب ولكن هذا ما كان يمنع (فلورنتينو اريثا) من الاستمرار بالأمل والسعي لراحتها فيتخلص من المسافرين الآخرين بخدعة أن السفينة عليها وباء الكوليرا لكي لا تنتهي الرحلة ويكون الفراق ويثبت أنها خدعة غير موفقة مع الحجر الصحي وتدخل السلطات.. و تنتهي الرواية والسفينة تعبر النهر ذهابا وجيئة رافعة علم الوباء الأصفر دون أن ترسو إلا للتزود بوقود فيما تضم عش الحبيبين الذين لا يباليان بكبر عمرها ويقرران أنهما الآن في مرحلة أفضل لوصول مرحلة ما وراء الحب وهي الحب لذات الحب. ولقد منح المؤلف هذه الرواية كل ما له من نبوغ في السرد القصصي وسعة الخيال, وهو أيضا مؤلف مائة عام من العزلة والحائز على جائزة نوبل للآداب عام 1982. |
http://img182.imageshack.us/img182/1766/123pw7.jpg تعريف بالرواية : وهي من أشهر روايات الكولومبي جابرييل غارسيا ماركيز الحائز على جائزة نوبل في الآداب ، والذي أعلن خجله من حمل هذه الجائزة في الوقت الذي يحمله فيها مرتكبو المجازر في فلسطين ولبنان وصاحب البيان الشهير الذي يطالب المثقفين العرب بأخذ موقف قوي وموحد في نصرة القضية الفلسطينية ، وصاحب الرواية الأشهر "مائة عام من العزلة" كان في ذهني وقبل أن أقرأ الرواية مواقف الرجل الجريئة و شخصيته المتميزة فهو نصير التحرر والحق و صاحب المبادئ التي تبدو غريبة أحيانا ومثيرة للدهشة مثل رفض تحويل رواياته لأفلام سينمائية حفاظا على حق القارئ في الخيال !! و هو متمسك بالحياة جدا لدرجة أنه يرفض الموت لأبطال رواياته وإن اضطر لقتل أحدهم فهو يصرخ ويبكيهم كما لو كانوا أصدقاء !! وبعد أن قرأتها تركز في ذهني كروائي وتركزت شخصياته في الذاكرة والآن إلى الرواية محل القراءة : الحب في زمن الكوليرا الرواية مليئة بالزخم والأحداث لأنها تروي قصة رجل وامرأة منذ المراهقة وحتى ما بعد بلوغهما السبعين ، وتصف ما تغير حولهما وما دار من حروب أهليه في منطقة الكاريبي و حتى تغيرات التكنولوجيا وتأثيراتها على نهر مجدلينا العظيم والبيئة الطبيعية في حوضه . ولأن الرواية رواية "حب" كان اسمها حب ولأنها قصة حزينة في وسط حزين كان لا بد لماركيز أن يضيف "في زمن الكوليرا" والحاضرة كبطل رئيسي في الرواية كوحش منتشر في منطقة الكاريبي ذات الحر الخانق والفقر المدقع حاصدا البشر بشراسة لدرجة ترى فيها الجثث ملقاة في الشوارع ولا ينفذ منها حتى الأطباء أنفسهم .. ولأن مفتاح الرواية عند ماركيز يتشكل من الكلمة الأولى فقد ربط بين اللوز المر والغراميات الكئيبة في طريق الطبيب أحد أبطال الرواية لمعاينة حالة انتحار لمهاجر نكتشف فيما بعد أنه قد يعتبر شخصا زائدا في الرواية وأنه مجرد حدث ثانوي .. كما يموت الطبيب في اليوم ذاته بحادث آخر ليبدأ ماركيز في قص أحداث الرواية عائدا بذاكرة الأبطال ما يزيد على نصف قرن .. البطلان الرئيسيان هما فلورنتينو اريثا الذي يعشق فيرمينا اديثا وهي على مقاعد الدراسة وتبادله الحب عبر الرسائل فتطرد من المدرسة الدينية لأن المدرسة ضبطتها تكتب رسالة حب كما يرفض والدها التاجر هذا الحب لأنه يأمل لابنته بعريس من طبقة اجتماعية أعلى فيسافر بها بعيدا عن المنطقة ويغيب فترة يظنها كافية دون أن يدرك أن ابنته كانت على اتصال مع حبيبها طيلة الوقت بوساطة التلغراف وتعلقت به إلى أن اعتبرته خطيبا لها والمفارقة المدهشة والتي ستكون بداية المأساة أنها وبعد ثلاثة سنوات من حبها له عبر الرسائل شبه اليومية لم تقترب منه بدرجة كافية كما في حصل ذات مرة في السوق وهي تشتري أغراض الخطوبة لتفاجأ بان حبها مجرد "وهم" وتذهل كيف أحبت ذلك "الطيف" المفتقر إلى الملامح المحددة فتنهي الأمر بقرار فردي ثم تتزوج من طبيب جذاب خريج أوروبا يحظى بمباركة والدها نظرا لمكانته الاجتماعية وتعيش معه سعيدة طوال 52 عاما من عمرها ، تسافر فيها معه إلى أغلب أنحاء أوروبا وتتفنن في جمع كل ما هو غريب لتعرضه بعد عودتها على الأصدقاء والمعارف ، و تساهم وزوجها الطبيب في النشاطات الاجتماعية والثقافية في البلاد وتنتقل إلى طبقته بتفوق وتنجب منه وتنسى حبها الأول الذي لا ينساها للحظة ويعاهد نفسه على الزواج منها حتى لو أدى به الأمر أن ينتظر أو يتمنى وفاة زوجها !! وبعد أن كان يرفض أن يعاشر غيرها رغم أنه يقضي وقته في فندق خاص بعمه بين عصافير الليل اللواتي يتكسبن عن طريق جسدهن دون أن يعيرهن اهتماما ، إلا أنه بعد زواجها وتعرضه لحادثة (اغتصاب) من قبل امرأة لم يتح له معرفتها ، يحاول أن يدفن نفسه في العلاقات الجنسية مع النساء بحثا عن الحب وكمحاولة للتعويض بطريقة الأخذ أكثر من العطاء ودون أن يذهب في أي علاقة إلى حد الالتزام لأنه يريد أن يظل حرا على أمل الاقتران بفيرمينا داثا وفي الوقت ذاته يرتقي في عمله في شركة النقل النهري التي يملكها عمه بفضل اجتهاده وسعيه لمكانة ترضي حبيبته مع مساعدة المرأة الوحيدة التي عرفها كصديقة دون أن يضاجعها ، فيما بقية النساء كثيرات العدد يصورهن ماركيز بالشهوانيات غالبا غير المخلصات والميالات للخيانة بسهولة ، مركزا على الأرامل اللواتي يبدأن الحياة الحقة بعد وفاة أزواجهن !! ورغم أنه كان يحب النساء اللواتي يعرفهن بطريقة ما ويحببنه إلا أنه كان يعتبر نفسه طوال الوقت زوجا لفرمينيا اديثا ويحافظ على سرية تلك العلاقات ويرفض أن تقاسمه أي منهن سريره في بيته والمعد فقط لها ولم يكن يعذبه ضميره أو يحوله عن تصميمه شيئ حتى حين كان سببا في قتل إحداهن من قبل زوجها بسببه وحتى حين انتحر ت تلك الطفلة التي كان وصيا عليها وتصغره بستين عاما فيما كانت تشاركه سريره لأنه صدها بعد وفاة زوج فرمينا داثا أخيرا زوج فرمينيا داثا كان طبيبا مثاليا ، يحب زوجته دون أن يخلو الأمر من نزوة تعرض لها وضحى بالمرأة التي كانت زنجية في سبيل زوجته ودون أن تخلو حياة طولها نصف قرن من بعض الرواسب والخلافات لتظل سعيدة بمعظمها وحتى موته .. لينكشف بعدها وعن طريق الصحف التي تترصد الطبقات العليا أنه كان على علاقة بصديقتها فتنقم عليه شاعرة بالإهانة حتى وهو متوفى .. الأحداث كثيرة ويصعب عرضها كما يصعب إعطاء خط عام للشخصيات التي رسم ماركيز تفاصيلها بريشة متقنة ، دون إطالة ولكن الخط العام للرواية يروي إصرار فلورنتينو اريثا على الوصول لهدفه في الزواج من فرمينا داثا وإخلاصه لهذا الهدف رغم أننا في مرحلة ما نظن ذلك شبه مستحيل فهو يتعجل و يسارع لتقديم عهد الحب لفرمينا داثا في نفس يوم وفاة زوجها مما يجعلها تطرده بكيل من الشتائم ، ولكنه لا يفقد الأمل ويستمر في محاولة كسب صداقتها بطريقة عقلية هذه المرأة حيث لم تعد الرسائل العاطفية لها من تأثير مع امرأة في السبعين يرسل لها رسائل عبارة عن تأملات في الحياة والزواج والشيخوخة تنال رضاها وتساعدها على تقبل الشيخوخة والموت بطريقة أفضل وتقبله شيئا فشيئا كصديق من عمرها تتبادل معه الأحاديث والتأملات فيما لا زال هو يرى فيها الحبيبة رغم تبدل مظهرها وذبولها وتجاوزهما العقد السابع ، ويتصادقان مع تشجيع ابنها الذي يفرح لأن أمه وجدت رفيقا من عمرها يتفاهم معها ومع نقمة ابنتها التي ترى الحب في هذه السن (قذارة) ، مما يؤدي بالأم لطردها من بيتها أحداث الرواية الأخيرة تدور في سفينة نهرية حيث يدعو فلورنتينو اريثا حبيبته لرحلة نهرية على سفينة تمتلكها شركته فتوافق وهناك يقترب منها اكثر وتدرك بأنها تحبه رغم شعورها بأن عمرها لا يصلح للحب ولكن هذا ما كان يمنع فلورنتينو اريثا من الاستمرار بالأمل والسعي لراحتها فيتخلص من المسافرين الآخرين بخدعة أن السفينة عليها وباء الكوليرا لكي لا تنتهي الرحلة ويكون الفراق ويثبت أنها خدعة غير موفقة مع الحجر الصحي وتدخل السطات .. وهنا تنتهي الرواية والسفينة تعبر النهر ذهابا وجيئة رافعة علم الوباء الأصفر دون أن ترسو إلا للتزود بوقود فيما تضم عش الحبيبين الذين لا يباليان بكبر عمرها ويقرران انهما الآن في مرحلة أفضل لوصول مرحلة ما وراء الحب وهي الحب لذات الحب رأي عام : لا يمكن القول إلا أنها رواية أكثر من رائعة ، قدمت لنا عبر قصة الحب الطويلة هذه الكثير من الواقع الأنساني بشكل ساحر فقد قرأنا الثقافة اللاتينية بكل زخمها من خلال الأبطال مع تحولات مرحلة التحرر والبناء والانتقال نحو المدنية وما عايشته أمريكا اللاتينية من أوبئة وحروب أهليه من خلال منظور إنساني يغوص في أعماق الشخصيات والتي وجدتها غنية جدا لدرجة أني ظننت أن بعضها زائد .. ولم يمنع من تعاطفي المطلق مع البطل ذي التصميم الخارق سوى إقامته لعلاقة جنسية مع طفلة هو وصي عليها ، وإهماله لها حتى كوصي عندما وجد حبيبته تحررت من الزواج دافعا إياها نحو المجهول و دون أن يؤثر عليه كثيرا خبر انتحارها سوى بعض الوخز البسيط لا أنكر هنا أني أحاسبه أخلاقيا وهذا ليس من حقي ولكن إنسان يحتفظ بحبه لأكثر من نصف قرن بكل هذا التصميم أفترض به أن يكون أكثر إنسانية مما ظهر منه .. كما لا أنكر أن صورة المرأة في الرواية لم تعجبني فقد بدت لي تقليدية جدا عاشقة ولكن خائنة ولم تسلم حتى البطلة من هذا الوصف في تلميح ترك مفتوحا لخيال القارئ تمثل في انسحاب فرمينا داثا بغضب من أمام الكاهن عندما أراد منها أن تعترف إن كان لها علاقات خارج إطار الزوجية ..رغم أن الكاتب لم يشر إلى ذلك في أحداث الرواية تناقل الكاتب بين الأزمان كان مبدعا وغنيا بالخيال فكثيرا ما بدأ من النهاية ثم أعادنا لزمن مضى أو انطلق من البداية أو المنتصف وشخصياته متنوعة ويعطيها حقها لدرجة تظنها محور الرواية وتفاجأ لاحقا بأن الحضور كان زائدا أو بطريقة أخرى : أدت المطلوب منها على أكمل وجه وانتهى دورها وسلمت المسيرة لغيرها .. ولا أدري إن كنتم مثلي ولكني أبدأ القراءة بتثاقل عادة وأجدها ممتعة أكثر مع تقدم الصفحات وهذا ما وجدته يزداد في كل صفحة طويتها عن سابقتها رغم أني لم أحب البداية لأني وجدت إطالة في فترة المراهقة دون داع إلا ما كان من بداية لقصة قهرت نصف قرن والكثير من المفاهيم التقليدية وقهرت حتى زمن الكوليرا في النهاية فإن ماركيز يستمد قوته من الواقع بطريقة غرائبية مشوقة يظهر فيها كمن يمارس الهروب من الواقع ، واقعية من نوع آخر !! ويتحدث الكاتب في لقاءاته ومقالاته من أن هذه القصص حقيقية فجزء كبير من الرواية حمل قصة حب أمه وأبيه وحتى الشخصيات الهامشية في الرواية لها أصل واقعي أعمل فيه ماركيز الخيال |
Gabriel José de la Concordia García Márquez Early life</SPAN>(n March 6, 1927)[1] is a Colombian novelist, short-story writer, screenwriter and journalist, known affectionately as Gabo throughout Latin America. Considered one of the most significant authors of the 20th century, he was awarded the 1972 Neustadt International Prize for Literature and the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature, and is the earliest remaining living recipient.1 He pursued a self-directed education that resulted in his leaving law school for a career in journalism. From early on, he showed no inhibitions in his criticism of Colombian and foreign politics. In 1958, he married Mercedes Barcha; they have two sons, Rodrigo and Gonzalo. He started as a journalist, and has written many acclaimed non-fiction works and short stories, but is best known for his novels, such as One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967) and Love in the Time of Cholera (1985). His works have achieved significant critical acclaim and widespread commercial success, most notably for popularizing a literary style labeled as magic realism, which uses magical elements and events in otherwise ordinary and realistic situations. Some of his works are set in a fictional village called Macondo (the town mainly inspired by his birthplace Aracataca), and most of them express the theme of solitude. Billboard of Gabriel García Márquez in Aracataca. It reads: "I feel Latin American from whatever country, but I have never renounced the nostalgia of my homeland: Aracataca, to which I returned one day and discovered that between reality and nostalgia was the raw material for my work". —Gabriel García Márquez Gabriel García Márquez was born on March 6, 1927 in the town of Aracataca, Colombia, to Gabriel Eligio García and Luisa Santiaga Márquez.- Soon after García Márquez was born, his father became a pharmacist. In January 1929, his parents moved to Sucre while García Marquez stayed in Aracataca. - He was raised by his maternal grandparents, Doña Tranquilina Iguarán and Colonel Nicolás Ricardo Márquez Mejía. - When he was nine, his grandfather died, and he moved to his parents' home in Sucre where his father owned a pharmacy. When his parents fell in love, their relationship met with resistance from Luisa Santiaga Marquez's father, the Colonel. Gabriel Eligio García was not the man the Colonel had envisioned winning the heart of his daughter: he (Gabriel Eligio) was a Conservative, and had the reputation of being a womanizer. Gabriel Eligio wooed Luisa with violin serenades, love poems, countless letters, and even telegraph messages after her father sent her away with the intention of separating the young couple. Her parents tried everything to get rid of the man, but he kept coming back, and it was obvious their daughter was committed to him.[9] Her family finally capitulated and gave her permission to marry him - (The tragicomic story of their courtship would later be adapted and recast as Love in the Time of Cholera). - Since García Márquez's parents were more or less strangers to him for the first few years of his life,[4] his grandparents influenced his early development very strongly. His grandfather, whom he called "Papalelo",[14] was a Liberal veteran of the Thousand Days War. The Colonel was considered a hero by Colombian Liberals and was highly respected. He was well known for his refusal to remain silent about the banana massacres that took place the year García Márquez was born.[18] The Colonel, whom García Márquez has described as his "umbilical cord with history and reality,"[5] was also an excellent storyteller.[19] He taught García Márquez lessons from the dictionary, took him to the circus each year, and was the first to introduce his grandson to ice—a "miracle" found at the United Fruit Company store.[20] He would also occasionally tell his young grandson "You can't imagine how much a dead man weighs",[21][22] reminding him that there was no greater burden than to have killed a man, a lesson that García Márquez would later integrate into his novels. García Márquez's political and ideological views were shaped by his grandfather's stories.[21] In an interview, García Márquez told his friend Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza, "my grandfather the Colonel was a Liberal. My political ideas probably came from him to begin with because, instead of telling me fairy tales when I was young, he would regale me with horrifying accounts of the last civil war that free-thinkers and anti-clerics waged against the Conservative government."[23][24] This influenced his political views and his literary technique so that "in the same way that his writing career initially took shape in conscious opposition to the Colombian literary status quo, García Márquez's socialist and anti-imperialist views are in principled opposition to the global status quo dominated by the United States."[25] García Márquez's grandmother, Doña Tranquilina Iguarán Cotes, played an equally influential role in his upbringing. He was inspired by the way she "treated the extraordinary as something perfectly natural."[7] The house was filled with stories of ghosts and premonitions, omens and portents,[26] all of which were studiously ignored by her husband.[14] According to García Márquez she was "the source of the magical, superstitious and supernatural view of reality".[5] He enjoyed his grandmother's unique way of telling stories. No matter how fantastic or improbable her statements, she always delivered them as if they were the irrefutable truth. It was a deadpan style that, some thirty years later, heavily influenced her grandson's most popular novel, One Hundred Years of Solitude.[27 |
غابرييل خوسيه غارثيا ماركيث بداياته</SPAN>(جابرييل جارسيا، جابريال، غابريال، ماركيث) (بالإسبانية: Gabriel José García Márquez) (ولد في 6 مارس 1927) روائي وصحفي وناشر وناشط سياسي كولمبي. ولد في مدينة أراكاتاكا في مديرية ماجدالينا وعاش معظم حياته في المكسيك وأوروبا ويقضي حالياً معظم وقته في مدينة مكسيكو. نال جائزة نوبل للأدب عام 1982 م وذلك تقديرا للقصص القصيرة والرويات التي كتبها. بدأ ماركيز ككاتب في صحيفة إلإسبكتادور الكولومبية اليومية (El Espectador)، ثمّ عمل بعدها كمراسل أجنبي في كل من روما وباريس وبرشلونة وكراكاس ونيويورك. كان أول عمل له قصة بحار السفينة المحطمة حيث كتبه كحلقات متسلسلة في صحيفة عام 1955 م. كان هذا الكتاب عن قصة حقيقية لسفينة كولومبية غرقت بسبب إفراط في التحميل والوزن, عملت الحكومة على محاولة درء الحقيقة بإدعاء أنها غرقت في عاصفة. سبب له هذا العمل عدم الشعور بالأمان في كولومبيا-حيث لم يرق للحكومة العسكرية ما نشره ماركيز- مما شجعه على بدء العمل كمراسل أجنبي. نشر هذا العمل في 1970 م واعتبره الكثيرون من الحب و العنف أدبه</SPAN>كثيرا ما يعتبر ماركيز من أشهر كتاب الواقعية العجائبية، والعديد من كتاباته تحوي عناصر شديدة الترابط بذلك الإسلوب، ولكن كتاباته متنوعة جداً بحيث يصعب تصنيفها ككل بأنها من ذلك الأسلوب. وتصنف الكثير من أعماله على أنها أدب خيالي أو غير خيالي وخصوصا عمله المسمى حكاية موت معلن 1981 م التي تحكي قصة ثأر مسجلة في الصحف وعمله المسمى الحب في زمن الكوليرا 1985 م الذي يحكي قصة الحب بين والديه. صحته</SPAN>ومن أشهر رواياته مائة عام من العزلة 1967 م، والتي بيع منها أكثر من 10 ملايين نسخة والتي تروي قصة قرية معزولة في أمريكا الجنوبية تحدث فيها أحداث غريبة. ولم تكن هذه الروابة مميزة لاستخدامها السحر الواقعي ولكن للاستخدام الرائع للغة الإسبانية. دائما ما ينظر إلى الرواية عندما تناقش على انها تصف عصورا من حياة عائلة كبيرة ومعقدة. وقد كتب أيضا سيرة سيمون دو بوليفار في رواية الجنرال في متاهته. ومن أعماله المشهورة الأخرى خريف البطريرك، عام 1975 م، وقصة موت معلن، عام 1981 م، و رائحة الجوافة عام 1982 والحب في زمن الكوليرا، عام 1986 م. تم اقتباس رواية جارسيا قصة موت معلن وتحويلها إلى عمل مسرحي في حلبة مصارعة الثيران بقيادة المخرج الكولومبي الشهير خورخي علي تريانا. ومن كتبه كتاب اثنتا عشرة قصة مهاجرة يضم 12 قصة كتبت قبل 18 عاماً مضت، وقد ظهرت من قبل كمقالات صحفية وسيناريوهات سينمائية، ومسلسلاً تلفزيونية لواحدة منها، فهي قصص قصيرة تستند إلى وقائع صحيفة، ولكنها متحررة من شرطها الأخلاقي بحيل شعرية. كما أصدر مذكراته بكتاب بعنوان عشت لأروي والتي تتناول حياته حتى عام 1955 م, وكتاب ذاكرة غانياتي الحزينات تتحدث عن ذكريات رجل مسن ومغامراته العاطفية، والأم الكبيرة. عام 2002 م قدم سيرته الذاتية في جزئها الأول من ثلاثة وكان للكتاب مبيعات ضخمة في عالم الكتب الإسبانية. نشرت الترجمة الإنجليزية لهذه السيرة أعيش لأروي على يد ايدث جروسمان عام 2003 م وكانت من الكتب الأكثر مبيعا. في 10 سبتمبر 2004 أعلنت بوغوتا ديلي إيلتيمبو نشر رواية جديدة في أكتوبر بعنوان ذاكرة غانياتي الحزينات وهي قصة حب سيطبع منها مليون نسخة كطبعة أولى. عرف عن ماركيز صداقته مع القائد الكوبي فيدل كاسترو وكذلك صداقته للقائد الفلسطيني ياسر عرفات وأبدى قبل ذلك توافقه مع الجماعات الثورية في أمريكا اللاتينية وخصوصا في الستينيات والسبعينيات. وكان ناقدًا للوضع في كولومبيا ولم يدعم علنيا الجماعات المسلحة مثل فارك FARC وجيش التحرير الوطني ELNالتي تعمل في بلاده. تم تشخيص اصابة غابرييل خوسيه غارثيا ماركيث في السرطان اللمفاوي في 1999، وقام بتلفي العلاج الكيميائي في مستشفى في لوس انجلوس، ومنذ ذلك الوقت بدأ في كتابة مذكراته، وكتب فيها "لقد خفضت علاقاتي مع أصدقائي إلى أدنى حد ممكن، وقطعت الهاتف، وقمت بإلغاء رحلاتي وجميع الخطط الحالية والمستقبلية"، "وعكفت على الكتابة كل يوم دون انقطاع". وفي عام 2002، واي بعد ثلاث سنوات من اصابته، قام بنشر روايته "عشت لأروي"، المجلد الأول لثلاثية مذكراته. ربما يكون ثمرة علاقة محرمة وزواج غير مرغوب فيه، وأقل ما يقال عنه انه يتيم اجتماعي ويبدو انه ولد في زمن الكوليرا حيث كثر الموت ولا ننسى ان جده الذي رباه مات وهو في سن التاسعة وبعدها عاد للعيش مع والديه الذين لم يكد يعرفهم من قبل منذ ولادته. في 2005 لم يكتب حتى ولو سطراً واحداً، وقد قال:" من خلال تجربتي فأنا أستطيع الكتابة دون أدنى مشاكل، لكن القراء سيدركون أن قلبي لم يكن معي لحظة الكتابة". في 2008 تم الإعلان عن انتهاء غابرييل من رواية جديدة باسم "رواية الحب". وفي 2012 أعلن أخو غابرييل أن غابرييل أصيب بالخرف، واشار إلى ان العلاج الكيميائي الذي تلقاه للعلاج من السرطان اللمفاوي قد يكون السبب [1] يتيم اجتماعي. |
by Gustave Flaubert, France, (1821-1880) رواية مدام بوفاري للروائي الفرنسي جوستاف فلوبير وتعتبر أول رواية واقعية تعتبر رواية فلوبير من اروع الاعمال الادبية إذ انها تعتبر انتصار حقيقي للواقعية على الحركة الرومانطيقية.عند كتابة فلوبير لهذة الرواية قامت النيابة الفرنسية باتهام فلوبير بان روايتة غير اخلاقية لكن سرعان ما اثبت محامي فلوبير عكس ذللك. تبدأ الرواية بدخول الفتى شارل بوفاري، إلى مدرسته، روان الداخلية، وهو في سن أكبر من طلبة صفه، ويقود منظره الريفي وكبر سنه المعلم والطلبة للاستهزاء به. ثم ينقل إلى دراسة الطب، ويتخرج بعد عثرات، ويفتتح عيادة في (توست) وتزوجه أمه من أرملة ثرية متقدمة في السن ومريضة في الخامسة والأربعين من عمرها. يستدعى شارل لعلاج قسيس في بروتو، كسرت ساقه وكان ثريا، وهناك يرى ابنة القسيس واسمها إيما، والتي قادته إلى حيث يرقد والدها. وقد بدت أنها تكره الريف والعيش فيه، وكانت تلقت دراسة في رعاية راهبات الأورسلين حيث تعلمت دروساً في الرقص والرسم وعزف البيانو والجغرافيا. تموت زوجة شارل الأولى، فيطلب يد إيما من الأب روو والذي كان يود أن يكون صهره أكثر غنى من شارل، وبعد استشارة الأب لابنته توافق ويوافق الأب كذلك. ويتزوج شارك وإيما في عرس باذخ ثم يعودان إلى توست، وقد بدت عقدة إيما النفسية، التي ربما نشأت من اعتقادها بأنها قبل الزواج قد دفعت إلى الحب لكنها لم تحصل على السعادة المترتبة على حبها، حتى أنها توهمت أنها على خطأ، فتساءلت: ماذا تعني عبارات النشوة والعاطفة والهيام التي قرأت عنها في الكتب! وبدلا من أن تنصرف إلى العناية بالزوج والبيت، صارت تسترجع ذكرياتها في سنين طفولتها 13 سنة. عندما دخلت الدير واقبلت على العبادة والإجابة عن الأسئلة الدينية الصعبة لكن مع اقترابها من السادسة عشرة فقد حدث انقلاب في نظرتها إلى الأشياء، فنفرت من المناظر الريفية الهادئة، واتجهت إلى نقيضها – المثيرة – وصارت تبحث عن العاطفة أكثر من بحثها عن المنظر ! وصارت تعجب بأبطال وبطلات الكتاب الكلاسيكيين ولاحظت الراهبات أنها أخذت تفلت من رعايتهن، بعد أن كن قد بالغن في مواعظهن لها وأسرفن في تلقينها الاحترام للقديسيين، وفي ازجاء النصح في اخضاع الجسد ولم تأسف الراهبات على خروجها من الدير عندما جاء أبوها وأخرجها منه. وتجد إيما لذة عند عودتها إلى مزرعة أبيها، في إصدار الأوامر للخدم، ولكنها حنت إلى الدير ثانية، وحتى وهي في أيام شهر العسل الأولى كانت تتمنى أن تكون تلك الأيام في أماكن أخرى مثل اسكتلندا أو سويسرا، ومع رجل من النبلاء لا مع شارل! ورغم قبولها بالزواج به، تتمنى لو التقت مرة واحدة نظراته بخواطرها ورؤاها. فالأمور بينهما كانت تسير على النقيض، حيث كلما ازدادت الألفة بينهما ازداد شعورها بالانطواء الروحي وزادت الهوة بينهما. إذ ترى أن حديثه سطحي ولا يعرف المسرح أو الموسيقا ولا يعرف شيئاً ، ولا يطمع في شيء. ورأت إيما أن زواجها من شارل لم يتح لها تحقيق ما تتطلع إليه من آمال لأن حياته تسير على نمط واحد، دون إثارة أو تغيير. كما أنها لم تجد أنها حرة في مصروف البيت، إذ اتهمتها حماتها بأنها – إيما – ميالة إلى تبذير دخل ابنها. حاولت إيما أن تقنع شارل بأنها تحبه، فكانت تغني له بعض الأناشيد العاطفية التي حفظتها، لكن انفعاله لم يختلف قبل الانشاد أو بعده ! كان يقبلها في مواعيد محددة، وكأنه يمارس عادة من العادات ! ويصل بها الانفعال إلى أن تقول يا إلهي لماذا تزوجت ! ولعل دعوة شارل وإيما إلى فوبيسار لزيارة مركيز أورفيليه، والذي أجرى له شارل عملية صغيرة كانت ذات أثر كبير في تلبية رغبة إيما إلى توقها لرؤية ما هو جديد وعظيم ! وبخاصة في هذا القصر الفاخر، الذي رأت فيه ما يروقها من البذخ سواء بالأثاث الفاخر أو الوجوه المترفة أو في المائدة العامرة، التي عرفت فيها للمرة الأولى أصنافاً من الطعام والفاكهة. وأسعدها أن استقبلها الماركيز وزوجته، ورقصت خلال الحفلة مع (الفايكونت). وقد ظلت تؤرخ لذكرى الحفلة بانقضاء الأسابيع التي تلتها. بدأت جذوة الحب تخمد من جانب إيما لزوجها، وصارت تتوق إلى الأجواء المخملية، حلمّا منها بأن تكون واحدة من بنات تلك الطبقة. كانت إيما من النوع الذي يزهو في الحصول على الأشياء القريبة وتطمح إلى ما بعدها. كانت تبحث عن عالم اللذات والانفعالات العنيفة، وتتمنى الحصول على الشيء وضده! بينما كان شارل ماضيا في خدمة مرضاه والارتحال يوميا لزيارتهم. لذا ملت إيما الحياة الرتيبة في روان، ومرضت، وعندما أخذها إلى طبيب آخر نصحه أن يغير مكان إقامته وبالفعل رحلت الأسرة إلى مكان آخر (أيونفيل) وإيما حامل بابنتها. وصل شارل وإيما إلى القرية الصغيرة واستقبلهما فيها الصيدلي هوميه وأقام احتفالاً لهما في الفندق الوحيد (الأسد الذهبي)، وأعدت لهم حفلة عشاء، وعلى مائدة العشاء جلس أربعة أشخاص، شارل، إيما والداعي هوميه، وفتى من المدينة شاب جميل يعمل كاتبا عند كاتب العدل أعزب يدرس القانون في باريس. هو (ليون)، الذي وافق على رأي إيما عندما طرحت مسألة السأم التي يصاب بها الإنسان نتيجة وجوده في مكان واحد. والذي أعجبه قبل ذلك جمالها ومظهرها الأنيق وعندما انشغل شارل وهوميه بتناول الطعام، بدأ ليون يتبادل الأحاديث العامة مع إيما، التي بدا لها أنه شغوف بالخيال ويحب المناظر الطبيعية، وبخاصة تلك التي حدثه عنها ابن عمه الذي سافر إلى سويسرا، ووجد كل من إيما وليون أشياء مشتركة بينهما على مدى ساعتين من الحديث أثناء العشاء ! كان ليون يسكن في البيت نفسه الذي يسكن فيه الصيدلي وأسرته، وقد كان مكان سكن إيما وزوجها في نفس الموقع في بيت آخر للصيدلي. وبعد مدة وضعت إيما حملها وكان بنتا اسمتها (بيرت) أقامت الأسرة حفلا دعي إليه معظم أهل البلدة ومن ضمنهم ليون. وفي إحدى زيارات إيما لابنتها عند المرضعة صادفت – ليون – ودعته إلى صحبتها في الزيارة، وذهبا معا إلى بيت المرضعة. وقد شعرا بشيء من الخدر العجيب يسري فيهما. وكان من عادة الجيران أن يجتمعوا في بعض الأمسيات حيث يلعب الصيدلي والطبيب لعبة الورق والدومينو، وكان يروق لإيما أن تجلس إلى جانب ليون، ليقرأ لها بعض الأشعار العاطفية، وبخاصة عندما كان النعاس يغلب على الصيدلي والطبيب. وقد صار ليون يهدي الطبيب وزوجته بعض التحف والكتب الطبية. وصار يرافق شارل في بعض رحلاته، لزيارة مرضاه. وقد بدا في نفس ليون أنه يحب إيما ولكنه لم يستطع أن يصرح لها بذلك. وانتظر حتى تحين الفرصة المناسبة. ومع بداية تفكير إيما وليون بحرارة اللذة التي سيحصل عليها كل منهما إذا تحابا. حاول تاجر – ليريه – أن يتسلل إلى جيوب إيما ليعرض عليها خدماته ، في جلب الملابس وأدوات الزينة لها من أشهر الماركات في باريس ! ويلاحظ ليون في إحدى المرات – وبعد أن كانت إيما تشعر بيمل نحو حب ليون – شيئاً غريبا من إيما التي تحدثه عن طيبة زوجها، وأن ربة البيت الصالحة لابد أن ترعى زوجها وبيتها وتهتم بهما، وعندما تسترجع بنتها من عند المرضعة، وعندما يلاحظ ذلك يقول في نفسه: يا له من جنون، كيف السبيل إليها! ولكن إيما في الحقيقة كانت تتخفى في هذا الزهد والرقة ما يحرق ذاتها من شهوات وغيظ وكراهية. كانت تهوى ليون وتنشد العزلة لتسعد بطيفه. العفة التي اتصفت بها، كانت بسبب كونها زوجة للطبيب، وأن هذه العفة وقفت حائلا دونها ودون تحقيق شهواتها، وأن زوجها لا يستحق كل ذلك! وأنه من واجبها أن تواجه هذا النفاق – العفة – التي تتظاهر بها. لابد أن تنتهي بالهرب مع ليون من الجحيم الذي تعيش فيه. وفي الوقت نفسه تسأل نفسها ماذا لو لم يستمر ليون في حبي ؟ وتخلص إلى أن مرضها – تعاستها – بدأ بعد الزواج. وتخال أن ما يساعدها في أزمتها هو اللجوء إلى الكنيسة، من أجل الاعتراف، ولكنها لم تكن قد أخطأت حتى تعترف؟ وتذهب بالفعل إلى الكنيسة. وعندما تعود إلى البيت تكون أشد عصبية وثورة. وعندما تحاول ابنتها الصغيرة الاقتراب منها تدفعها بشدة. وتتسبب في إحداث جرح في خدها وعندما يراها زوجها في توترها يتجه صوب ليون، الذي يتوجس خوفاً من شارل، ولكنه يتنفس الصعداء عندما يعرف أنه يريد رأي ليون في تقديم هدية لزوجته هي صورة الزوج، والتي سيساعده ليون في عملها في المدينة! وفي هذه الأثناء ظهر ليون في عيون من يعرفونه على أنه غريب الأطوار، شارد الذهن. يشعر بالملل من رتابة حياته في القرية، وأبدى رغبة في الرحيل إلى باريس ليكمل دراسته في القانون، فيتغير بذلك مجرى حياته، وعندما تسلم موافقة أمه، على سفره، ذهب إلى إيما وودعها ومضى! وقد مرضت إيما بعد تلك الحادثة! ولكن حبا آخر يهبط على قلب إيما بعد ذلك. عندما يحضر إلى بيت الطبيب الثري – الفني – رودلف بولانجيه الأعزب، ذو المغامرات ابن الرابعة والثلاثين، قاصداً الاستشفاء لغلام يشتغل عنده. والذي يفتن بجمال إيما عندما وقفت تساعد الطبيب أثناء علاج الفني، ويأخذ بالتردد على الطبيب لرؤية إيما، وتكون الفرصة ملائمة للقاء أثناء اقامة المعرض الزراعي في (أونفيل). وقد صاحبها إلى ذلك المرض. وتحدثا عن السعادة، وصرح لها بأنها لن تجدها ما دامت في عصمة ذلك الطبيب. وانها ستجد السعادة معه وهو صاحب القصر والمزرعة والخيول! ومع انتهاء الحفل يرافقها إلى منزلها. وحدث أن تمرض إيما، ويحضر رودلف. فيسأله شارل الطبيب: إذا كانت رياضة الخيل ستفيدها ! ويهيئ لها شارل ملابس ركوب الخيل ويكتب شارل إلى رودلف: إن زوجته تحت تصرف رودلف وأنه يعلق الأمل على لطفه! ومع عودتها من قصر رودلف – صاحب الخبرات النسائية – أخذت إيما تصيح: إن لي عشيقاً. حيث عاش معها – رودلف كزوج! رأت إيما في عشقها لرودلف نوعا من الانتقام من زوجها، ولكن رودلف لا يلبث أن يملها. ويعلن لها أن زيارتها له قد تسبب بعض الأقاويل حوله. كانت تجربة إيما مع ليون ورودلف تجربة فاشلة، أما تجربتها المادية مع ليريه التاجر فكانت سبباً في دمار الأسرة المادي فقد أغراها بالاستدانة ومن ثم انقض عليها في اللحظة المناسبة، إذ كان يعرف بعلاقتها مع ليون ورودلف وكانت تخشى من أن يفشي أسرارها وأغراها بتدوير الكمبيالات وبالحصول على توكيل مالي عام من زوجها بالتصرف في أمواله. وتسوء حالة إيما الصحية والمالية وذلك عندما يعلن الحجز على أملاك زوجها فتلجأ إلى ليون الذي تلتقيه مرة أخرى في إحدى المناسبات وتعاشره معاشرة الأزواج وتطلب منه المال لكنه يعتذر وكذا الأمر مع رودلف فتعود خائبة لتتناول السم ولا يلبث زوجها أن يكتشف رسائل عاشقيها فيموت وحيداً وتتشرد ابنتهم الصغيرة لتعمل عاملة في مصنع عند خالتها الفقيرة. |
Madame Bovary Plot synopsis(1856) is Gustave Flaubert's first published novel and is considered by many critics to be a masterpiece. The story focuses on a doctor's wife, Emma Bovary, who has adulterous affairs and lives beyond her means in order to escape the banalities and emptiness of provincial life. Though the basic plot is rather simple, even archetypal, the novel's true art lies in its details and hidden patterns. Flaubert was a notorious perfectionist and claimed always to be searching for le mot juste ("the right word"). When it was first serialized in La Revue de Paris between 1 October 1856 and 15 December 1856, the novel was attacked for obscenity by public prosecutors. The resulting trial, held in January 1857, made the story notorious. After Flaubert's acquittal on 7 February 1857, Madame Bovary became a bestseller when it was published as a single volume in April 1857. Flaubert's masterpiece is now considered a seminal work of Realism and one of the most influential novels ever written. In fact, the notable British-American critic James Wood writes in How Fiction Works: "Flaubert established for good or ill, what most readers think of as modern realist narration, and his influence is almost too familiar to be visible".[1] Madame Bovary takes place in provincial northern France, near the town of Rouen in Normandy. The story begins and ends with Charles Bovary, a stolid, kindhearted man without much ability or ambition. As the novel opens, Charles is a shy, oddly dressed teenager arriving at a new school amidst the ridicule of his new classmates. Later, Charles struggles his way to a second-rate medical degree and becomes an officier de santé in the Public Health Service. His mother chooses a wife for him, an unpleasant but supposedly rich widow, and Charles sets out to build a practice in the village of Tostes (now Tôtes). One day, Charles visits a local farm to set the owner's broken leg, and meets his client's daughter, Emma Rouault. Emma is a beautiful, daintily dressed young woman who has received a "good education" in a convent and who has a latent but powerful yearning for luxury and romance imbibed from the popular novels she has read. Charles is immediately attracted to her, and begins checking on his patient far more often than necessary until his wife's jealousy puts a stop to the visits. When his wife dies, Charles waits a decent interval, then begins courting Emma in earnest. Her father gives his consent, and Emma and Charles are married. At this point, the novel begins to focus on Emma. Charles means well, but is boring and clumsy, and after he and Emma attend a ball given by the Marquis d'Andervilliers, Emma grows disillusioned with married life and becomes dull and listless. Charles consequently decides that his wife needs a change of scenery, and moves from the village of Tostes into a larger, but equally stultifying market town, Yonville (traditionally based on the town of Ry). Here, Emma gives birth to a daughter, Berthe; however, motherhood, too, proves to be a disappointment to Emma. She then becomes infatuated with one of the first intelligent young men she meets in Yonville, a young law student, Léon Dupuis, who seems to share her appreciation for "the finer things in life", and who returns her admiration. Out of fear and shame, however, Emma hides her love for Léon and her contempt for Charles, and plays the role of the devoted wife and mother, all the while consoling herself with thoughts and self-congratulations of her own virtue. Finally, in despair of ever gaining Emma's affection, Léon departs to study in Paris. One day, a rich and rakish landowner, Rodolphe Boulanger, brings a servant to the doctor's office to be bled. He casts his eye over Emma and decides she is ripe for seduction. To this end, he invites Emma to go riding with him for the sake of her health; solicitous only for Emma's health, Charles embraces the plan, suspecting nothing. A four-year affair follows. Swept away by romantic fantasy, Emma risks compromising herself with indiscreet letters and visits to her lover, and finally insists on making a plan to run away with him. Rodolphe, however, has no intention of carrying Emma off, and ends the relationship on the eve of the great elopement with an apologetic, self-excusing letter delivered at the bottom of a basket of apricots. The shock is so great that Emma falls deathly ill, and briefly turns to religion. When Emma is nearly fully recovered, she and Charles attend the opera, on Charles' insistence, in nearby Rouen. The opera reawakens Emma's passions, and she re-encounters Léon who, now educated and working in Rouen, is also attending the opera. They begin an affair. While Charles believes that she is taking piano lessons, Emma travels to the city each week to meet Léon, always in the same room of the same hotel, which the two come to view as their "home." The love affair is, at first, ecstatic; then, by degrees, Léon grows bored with Emma's emotional excesses, and Emma grows ambivalent about Léon, who becoming himself more like the mistress in the relationship, compares poorly, at least implicitly, to the rakish and domineering Rodolphe. Meanwhile, Emma, given over to vanity, purchases increasing amounts of luxury items on credit from the crafty merchant, Lheureux, who arranges for her to obtain power of attorney over Charles’ estate, and crushing levels of debts mount quickly. When Lheureux calls in Bovary's debt, Emma pleads for money from several people, including Léon and Rodolphe, only to be turned down. In despair, she swallows arsenic and dies an agonizing death; even the romance of suicide fails her. Charles, heartbroken, abandons himself to grief, preserves Emma's room as if it is a shrine, and in an attempt to keep her memory alive, adopts several of her attitudes and tastes. In his last months, he stops working and lives off the sale of his possessions. When he by chance discovers Rodolphe and Léon's love letters, he still tries to understand and forgive. Soon after, he becomes reclusive; what has not already been sold of his possessions is seized to pay off Lheureux, and he dies, leaving his young daughter Berthe to live with distant relatives and she is eventually sent to work at a cotton mill. |
Gustave Flaubert Life(French pronunciation: [ɡystav flobɛʁ]; December 12, 1821 – May 8, 1880) was a French writer who is counted among the greatest novelists in Western literature. He is known especially for his first published novel, Madame Bovary (1857), for his Correspondence, and for his scrupulous devotion to his art and style. Early life and education Flaubert was born on December 12, 1821, in Rouen, in the Seine-Maritime department of Upper Normandy, in northern France. He was the second son of Anne Justine Caroline (née Fleuriot; 1793–1872) and Achille-Cléophas Flaubert (1784–1846), a surgeon. He began writing at an early age, as early as eight according to some sources.[1] Personal lifeHe was educated at the Lycée Pierre Corneille in Rouen. and did not leave until 1840, when he went to Paris to study law. In Paris, he was an indifferent student and found the city distasteful. He made a few acquaintances, including Victor Hugo. Toward the end of 1840, he traveled in the Pyrenees and Corsica. - In 1846, after an attack of epilepsy, he left Paris and abandoned the study of law. From 1846 to 1854, Flaubert had a relationship with the poet Louise Colet; his letters to her survive. After leaving Paris, he returned to Croisset, near the Seine, close to Rouen, and lived with his mother in their home for the rest of his life. He made occasional visits to Paris and England, where he apparently had a mistress. Flaubert never married. According to his biographer Émile Faguet, his affair with Louise Colet was his only serious romantic relationship. He sometimes visited prostitutes.[3] Eventually, the end of his affair with Colet led Flaubert to lose interest in romance and seek platonic companionship, particularly with other writers. With his lifelong friend Maxime Du Camp, he traveled in Brittany in 1846. In 1849–1850 he went on a long journey to the Middle East, visiting Greece and Egypt. In Beirut he contracted syphilis. He spent five weeks in Constantinople in 1850. He visited Carthage in 1858 to conduct research for his novel Salammbô. Flaubert was very open about his sexual activities with prostitutes in his writings on his travels. He suspected that a chancre on his penis was from a Maronite or a Turkish girl.[4] He also engaged in intercourse with male prostitutes in Beirut and Egypt; in one of his letters, he describes a "pockmarked young rascal wearing a white turban" with whom he had anal sex.[5][6] He had intercourse with a 14-year-old Maronite boy in 1850.[7] Flaubert was a tireless worker and often complained in his letters to friends about the strenuous nature of his work. He was close to his niece, Caroline Commanville, and had a close friendship and correspondence with George Sand. He occasionally visited Parisian acquaintances, including Émile Zola, Alphonse Daudet, Ivan Turgenev, and Edmond and Jules de Goncourt. The 1870s were a difficult time for Flaubert. Prussian soldiers occupied his house during the War of 1870, and his mother died in 1872. After her death, he fell into financial difficulty. Flaubert suffered from venereal diseases most of his life. His health declined and he died at Croisset of a cerebral hemorrhage in 1880 at the age of 58. He was buried in the family vault in the cemetery of Rouen. A monument to him by Henri Chapu was unveiled at the museum of Rouen |
جوستاف فلوبير مسيرته الأدبيةGustave Flaubert؛ (1821 - 1880)، روائي فرنسي، درس الحقوق، ولكنه عكف على التأليف الأدبي. - أصيب بمرض عصبي جعله يمكث طويلاً في كرواسيه. كان أول مؤلف مشهور له: « التربية العاطفية » (1843 – 1845)، ثم « مدام بوفاري » 1857 التي تمتاز بواقعيتها وروعة أسلوبها، والتي أثارت قضية الأدب المكشوف. ثم تابع تأليف رواياته المشهورة، منها: « سالامبو » 1862، و« تجربة القديس أنطونيوس » 1874، ويعتبر فلوبير مثلاً أعلى للكاتب الموضوعي، الذي يكتب بأسلوب دقيق، ويختار اللفظ المناسب والعبارة الملاءمة. ينتمي الكاتب الفرنسي إلى المدرسة الواقعية الأدبية وعادة ما يتم النظر إلى روايته المشهورة (مدام بوفاري Madame Bovary)، باعتبارها أول رواية واقعية، وهو الذي تابع المشروع الروائي الواقعي، الذي بدأه كتاب فرنسيون آخرون، وأرسى قواعده، إلا أنه بالرغم من انتمائه إلى المدرسة الواقعية، يظل ذلك الكاتب الذي زاوج بين واقعيته، وبين ميله الرومنطقي، الذي ظهر جليا في روايته (سالامبو Salammbo)، وفي تضاعيف رواياته الأخرى، التي حملت عناوين: (إغراء القديس أنطونيوس) و(التربية العاطفية)، بالإضافة إلى روايته (مدام بوفاري). وعلى خلاف الكتاب الرومانتيكيين، الذين يعتمدون على الخيال، والعواطف المتقدة، في التعبير الأدبي، تميز جوستاف فلوبير بقدرته على الملاحظة الدقيقة، وعلى توصيف النماذج البشرية العادية، توصيفا دقيقا، والاستعانة بالعقل، والرؤية الموضوعية، بدلا من نظيرتها الذاتية، التي يتصف بها الكتاب الرومانتيكيون عادة، والواقع أنه الكاتب الذي لم يكن ينفر من الواقع على غرار الرومانتيكيين، بل كان يعتقد أن الفن الحقيقي هو الفن الموضوعي Objective وأن الفصل بين الفنان كذات، وفنه كموضوع، ضروري، ومع ذلك، فإنه الكاتب الذي يمثل المذهبين الواقعي والرومانتيكي، بطريقة أو بأخرى. وفي رواية (مدام بوفاري)، يصور جوستاف فلوبير التطورات الطارئة على بطلة الرواية، إيما بوفاري، من الناحيتين السيكولوجية والأخلاقية، وبالإضافة إليها كنموذج بشري أنثوي، عادي، فإنه يصور طبائع وأمزجة عدد من الشخصيات الأخرى، وكلها نماذج عادية، تحيا في الواقع الاجتماعي، وتنتمي إلى الطبقة الوسطى Middle-class ولها اهتماماتها، وأهدافها، ومشاريعها العادية، وبالفعل فإن توصيف النماذج التي تحيا الواقع، ليس عملية يسيرة، وجوستاف فلوبير وفق هذا المنظور، روائي وفنان واقعي بامتياز، وهو قادر على رصد الطبائع البشرية، ومعرفتها، معرفة عميقة، على خلاف الرؤية الفلسفية، التي تؤدي بالفيلسوف عادة، إلى معرفة الإنسان، ودوافعه، وحوافزه، والأخلاقيات التي يؤمن بها، بأكثر من معرفة الأفراد، وطبائعهم، التي تتميز بها فردانيتهم، وهذه الظاهرة موجودة على نطاق واسع، لدى الفلاسفة، بالرغم من طاقاتهم الكبيرة على التحليل السيكولوجي للطبائع البشرية، على أن جوستاف فلوبير لم يكن فيلسوفا، بل روائيا، وفنانا واقعيا. ومما تتصف به بطلة الرواية إيما بوفاري، ميلها إلى التعالي الذاتي، على الطريقة الرومانتيكية، وكانت قراءاتها في الأدب الرومانتيكي، وإطلاعها على رواية (بول وفرجيني Paul and Virginia)، للكاتب الرومانتيكي برناردين دي سان بيير (1814-1737)، بالإضافة إلى أشعار ألفونس دو لامارتين (1869-1790) العاطفية، والحكايات التاريخية للكاتب الإنكليزي سير والتر سكوت (1832-1771)، قد أدت إلى تعلقها بهذا النوع من الأدب، وإلى ميلها إلى الارتقاء بذاتها، والتطلع بأمل، إلى المستقبل، والنفور من الحاضر، الذي يتصف بالافتقار إلى الفاعلية، والنشاطية. وإن زواجها من الطبيب التقليدي شارل بوفاري، أدى إلى زيادة إحساسها بالفراغ، ورغبتها في الانعتاق من القيد الاجتماعي، الذي يكبلها، ويمنع روحها من التعالي والارتقاء. والواقع أن شارل بوفاري على درجة كبيرة من المحدودية، على كل المستويات، الفكرية والشعورية، وهو على دراية بأن زوجته تتفوق عليه، من الناحية الجوانية، إلى الحد الذي يجعله يرتبط بها، ارتباطا وجدانيا وثيقا، يبدو على حقيقته في آخر الرواية، عندما تصل إيما بوفاري إلى نهايتها التراجيدية، فتقرر الانتحار، بعد إخفاقها في إيجاد الحبيب، الذي تتطلع إليه نفسها، وبناء العلاقة الغرامية، التي تتوق إليها روحها، المتعطشة للحب، وهو ما يؤدي بزوجها شارل بوفاري، إلى الموت حزنا وكمدا، على زوجته الراحلة، هذا مع علمه بخياناتها المتكررة. وهنا تجدر الإشارة إلى أنها تعلن، قبل وفاتها، حبها له، مما يدل على أن مشروعها الرومانتيكي، قد أخفق إخفاقا تاما، إلى الحد الذي جعلها تعود إلى زوجها الشرعي، عودة أشبه بعودة التائب، الذي يحاول الانعتاق من الأخطاء، التي ارتكبها، وتوجب عليه أن يدفع لقاءها، ثمنا باهظا. وفي الإبداعات الأدبية، تطالعنا في كثير من الروايات، نماذج بشرية شبيهة بما نلقاه في رواية (مدام بوفاري)، فالبطل سانتياغو في رواية (الخيميائي The Alchemist)، للكاتب البرازيلي باولو كويلهو Paulo Coelho، يحلم، ويتطلع إلى واقع أجدر بالإنسان، وبالطبيعة البشرية، من الواقع الذي يحيا فيه، وتطلعه هذا، تطلع سيكولوجي أخلاقي، ذاتي، على الطريقة الرومانتيكية، التي تتجاوز العوائق كلها، كي تتحول إلى تطلع ثيوصوفي Theosophical، قادر على النماء، وعلى تحقيق النجاح الموصول، لكن بائع الكريستال يرضى بالواقع، ولا يتطلع إلى أبعد من الحال، التي هو عليها، كنموذج البطل شارل بوفاري، إلا أن الفارق يظل كبيرا بين بطلي الروايتين، فالبطل سانتياغو قادر على مواصلة التعالي الذاتي، وعلى الالتقاء باللامتناهي، بالرغم من العوائق القدرية، القادرة على عرقلته، وإفشال مشروعه الثيوصوفي، لكن الدافعية الرومانتيكية تكون أكثر تواضعا، لدى كثيرين، ممن يحاولون عبور هذه الطريق، الوعرة المسالك، ومن الشعراء الرومانتيكيين، الذين عانوا من مشقات الرحلة، الشاعر العربي أبو القاسم الشابي (1934-1909)، وفي هذه الحالات يعثر القارئ على نصوص إبداعية يائسة، وميالة إلى التشاؤم، بالرغم من أن الإبداع الأدبي، الذي خلفوه لنا، إبداع ينطوي على رؤية تفاؤلية للإنسان، وللمستقبل البشري، وللذات البشرية. ومهما يكن من أمر، فإن مشروع البطلة إيما بوفاري، يفشل فشلا شاملا، بعد إخفاقها في الحب، مع عشيقيها، رودولف وليون، وهو الإخفاق الذي يتجلى بانكسارها السيكولوجي، وبموتها، على هذا المستوى، مما يجعلها تقرر الانتحار، ولا تتردد في الإقدام عليه، لا بل أنها تشعر بالارتياح والسعادة، لأن متاعبها آيلة إلى الزوال، ومعاناتها في طريقها إلى الانتهاء. وإنه لمن التراجيدي بالفعل، أن يشعر المرء بأن موته هو سبيله إلى الخلاص من المعاناة، وبالرغم من أن المفكر والشاعر الإيطالي جياكومو ليوباردي (1837-1898) Giacomo Leopardi، قد وصل إلى اختبار حالة الموت السيكولوجي، والتصق بها، إلا أنه اعتبر الانتحار خيارا مرفوضا، وهو بقراره هذا، إنما يؤكد الحالة، كواقع سيكولوجي، ومن ناحية أخرى، فإن حقيقة كونه مفكرا، وليس شاعرا فقط، قد مكنته من اتخاذ قراره، باحتمال الحياة، حتى النهاية. |
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