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ايوب صابر 06-14-2011 10:03 PM

جورج مريدث

يتمه: فقد الام وعمره 14 سنه.
مجاله: روائي انجليزي.

George Meredith, OM (12 February 1828 – 18 May 1909) was an English novelist and poet during the Victorian era.
Meredith was born in Portsmouth, England, a son and grandson of naval outfitters. His mother died when he was five. At the age of 14 he was sent to a Moravian School in Neuwied, Germany, where he remained for two years.

He read law and was articled as a solicitor, but abandoned that profession for journalism and poetry shortly after marrying Mary Ellen Nicolls, a widowed daughter of Thomas Love Peacock, in 1849: he was twenty-one years old and she was twenty-eight.
He collected his early writings, first published in periodicals, into Poems, published to some acclaim in 1851. His wife ran off with the English Pre-Raphaelite painter Henry Wallis [1830–1916] in 1858; she died three years later. The collection of "sonnets" entitled Modern Love (1862) came of this experience as did The Ordeal of Richard Feverel, his first "major novel".
He married Marie Vulliamy in 1864 and settled in Surrey. He continued writing novels and poetry, often inspired by nature. His writing was characterized by a fascination with imagery and indirect references. He had a keen understanding of comedy and his Essay on Comedy (1877) is still quoted in most discussions of the history of comic theory. In The Egoist, published in 1879, he applies some of his theories of comedy in one of his most enduring novels. Some of his writings, including The Egoist, also highlight the subjection of women during the Victorian period. During most of his career, he had difficulty achieving popular success. His first truly successful novel was Diana of the Crossways published in 1885.
Meredith supplemented his often uncertain writer's income with a job as a publisher's reader. His advice to Chapman and Hall made him influential in the world of letters. His friends in the literary world included, at different times, William and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Algernon Charles Swinburne, Leslie Stephen, Robert Louis Stevenson, George Gissing and J. M. Barrie. His contemporary Sir Arthur Conan Doyle paid him homage in the short-story The Boscombe Valley Mystery, when Sherlock Holmes says to Dr. Watson during the discussion of the case, "And now let us talk about George Meredith, if you please, and we shall leave all minor matters until to-morrow." Oscar Wilde, in his dialogue The Decay of Lying, implies that Meredith, along with Balzac, is his favourite novelist, saying "Ah, Meredith! Who can define him? His style is chaos illumined by flashes of lightning".
In 1868 he was introduced to Thomas Hardy by Frederick Chapman of Chapman & Hall the publishers. Hardy had submitted his first novel, The Poor Man and the Lady. Meredith advised Hardy not to publish his book as it would be attacked by reviewers and destroy his hopes of becoming a novelist. Meredith felt the book was too bitter a satire on the rich and counselled Hardy to put it aside and write another 'with a purely artistic purpose' and more of a plot. Meredith spoke from experience; his first big novel, The Ordeal of Richard Feverel, was judged so shocking that Mudie's circulating library had cancelled an order of 300 copies. Hardy continued to try and publish the novel: however it remained unpublished, though he clearly took Meredith's advice seriously. (ref: Claire Tomalin, 'Thomas Hardy The Time Torn Man' published by Penguin 2007 pp92)
Before his death, Meredith was honoured from many quarters: he succeeded Lord Tennyson as president of the Society of Authors; in 1905 he was appointed to the Order of Merit by King Edward VII.
In 1909 he died at his home in Box Hill, Surrey.
Works


"Our first novelist"
Meredith as caricatured by
Max Beerbohm in Vanity Fair, September 1896
Essays
Novels
Poetry
  • Poems (1851)
  • Modern Love (1862)
  • Poems and Lyrics of the Joy of Earth (1883)
  • The Woods of Westermain (1883)
  • A Faith on Trial (1885)
  • Ballads and Poems of Tragic Life (1887)
  • A Reading of Earth (1888)
  • The Empty Purse (1892)
  • Odes in Contribution to the Song of French History(1898)
  • A Reading of Life (1901)
  • Last Poems (1909)
  • Lucifer in Starlight

ايوب صابر 06-14-2011 10:04 PM

شارلز مسيير
يتمه: مات ابوه وهو في سن الـ 11.
مجاله: فلكي ..مكتشف لعدد من المذنبات.

Charles Messier (26 June 1730 – 12 April 1817) was a French astronomer most notable for publishing an astronomical catalogue consisting of deep sky objects such as nebulae and star clusters that came to be known as the 110 "Messier objects". The purpose of the catalogue was to help astronomical observers, in particular comet hunters such as himself, distinguish between permanent and transient objects in the sky.
Messier's life
Messier was born in Badonviller in the Lorraine region of France, being the tenth of twelve children of Françoise B. Grandblaise and Nicolas Messier, a Court usher. Six of his brothers and sisters died while young and in 1741, his father died. Charles' interest in astronomy was stimulated by the appearance of the spectacular, great six-tailed comet in 1744 and by an annular solar eclipse visible from his hometown on 25 July 1748.
In 1751 he entered the employ of Joseph Nicolas Delisle, the astronomer of the French Navy, who instructed him to keep careful records of his observations. Messier's first documented observation was that of the Mercury transit of 6 May 1753.
In 1764, he was made a fellow of the Royal Society, in 1769, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and on 30 June 1770, he was elected to the French Academy of Sciences.
Messier discovered 13 comets :

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 10:52 PM

جبريل مسترال

يتمه: والدها هجر العائلة وهي في سن الثالثة ومات وهي في سن الثانية والعشرين.
مجاله: شاعره من تشيلي فائز بجائزة نوبل للادب.

Gabriela Mistral (April 7, 1889 – January 10, 1957) was the pseudonym of Lucila de María del Perpetuo Socorro Godoy Alcayaga, a Chileanpoet, educator, diplomat, and feminist who was the first Latin American to win the Nobel Prize in Literature, in 1945. Some central themes in her poems are nature, betrayal, love, a mother's love, sorrow and recovery, travel, and Latin American identity as formed from a mixture of Native American and European influences. Gabriela Mistral was of Basque and Amerindian descent.[1][2]
Mistral was born in Vicuña, Chile, but was raised in the small Andean village of Montegrande, where she attended the Primary school taught by her older sister, Emelina Molina. She respected her sister greatly, despite the many financial problems that Emelina brought her, in later years.
Her father, Juan Gerónimo Godoy Villanueva, was also a schoolteacher. He abandoned the family before she was three years old, and died, long since estranged from the family, in 1911. Throughout her early years she was never far from poverty. By age fifteen, she was supporting herself and her mother, Petronila Alcayaga, a seamstress, by working as a teacher's aide in the seaside town of Compañia Baja, near La Serena, Chile.
In 1904 Mistral published some early poems, such as Ensoñaciones, Carta Íntima ("Intimate Letter") and Junto al Mar, in the local newspaper El Coquimbo: Diario Radical, and La Voz de Elqui using a range of pseudonyms and variations on her civil name.
Probably in about 1906, while working as a teacher, Mistral met Romelio Ureta, a railway worker, who killed himself in 1909. The profound effects of death were already in the poet's work; writing about his suicide led the poet to consider death and life more broadly than previous generations of Latin American poets. While Mistral had passionate friendships with various men and women, and these impacted her writings, she was secretive about her emotional life.
An important moment of formal recognition came on December 22, 1914, when Mistral was awarded first prize in a national literary contest Juegos Florales in Santiago, with the work Sonetos de la Muerte (Sonnets of Death). She had been using the pen name Gabriela Mistral since June 1908 for much of her writing. After winning the Juegos Florales she infrequently used her given name of Lucilla Godoy for her publications. She formed her pseudonym from the two of her favorite poets, Gabriele D'Annunzio and Frédéric Mistral or, as another story has it, from a composite of the Archangel Gabriel and the Mistral wind of Provence.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 10:53 PM

مارغريت ميتشل

يتمها: ماتت امها وعمرها 18 سنة.
مجالها: روائية امريكية.

(1900 - 1949) هي كاتبة روائية أمريكية ولدت في عام 1900 بمدينة أتلانتا بالولايات المتحدة الأمريكية. وقد بلغت بروايتها الوحيدة ((ذهب مع الريح)) شهرة لم تصل إليها كاتبة روائية أخرى من قبلها، وقد بدأت حياتها العملية في سنة 1921 مخبرة صحفية في جريدة أتلانتا، وفي سنة 1925 تزوجت رئيس التحرير واعتزلت الصحافة. ترعرعت ميتشل بين أقارب عايشوا بصورة مباشرة أحداث الحرب الأهلية الأمريكية، بعد زواج فاشل بدأت بالاعتماد على نفسها من خلال الكتابةلصحيفة محلية في أتلانتا واعتزلت العمل في مجال الصحافة في منتصف العشرينيات وتفرغت لكتابة روايتها المشهورة ذهب مع الريح التي أكملتها في 10 سنين. رفضت ميتشل عروض عديدة ومغرية لكتابة جزء ثاني من تلك الرواية ولكن وفي عام 1980 قام أحفادها بإعطاء الرخصة للكاتبة أليكساندرا ريبلي بان تكتب الجزء الثاني من الرواية وتم طبعها عام 1991 وتم تحويلها إلى سلسلة تلفزيونية ولكن الكتاب والعمل التلفزيوني لم يلقيا نجاحا وتجاوبا من القراء والمشاهدين.
ولدت ميتشل في 8 نوفمبر 1900، كانت والدتها ايزابيل ستيفن من أصول ايرلنديةكاثوليكية ووالدها يوجين ميتشل رجل قانون من اصول أسكتلندية وكانت العائلة تضم العديد من الجنود السابقين الذين قاتلوا في الحرب الأهلية وكانت ميتشل في طفولتها منبهرة بقصص الحرب التي كان يقصها عليها اقرباءها. صادفت ميتشل مشاكل في المدرسة في المرحلة الابتدائية بسبب كرهها لمادة الرياضيات التي وجدتها مادة معقدة وجعلتها تكره الذهاب للمدرسة وكانت والدتها تجبرها وتقودها إلى المدرسة رغما عنها. تمت خطوبتها على أحد شباب مدينتها وكان اسمه كليفورد هينري الذي التحق بالجيش الأمريكي في الحرب العالمية الأولى ولقي مصرعه في إحدى المعارك في فرنسا عام 1918.
بعد عام من مقتل خطيبها توفيت والدتها أثناء وباء الإنفلونزا عام 1919 وأصبحت ميتشل ربة البيت والمسؤولة عن رعاية والدها. في عام 1922 كان هناك رجلان في حياة ميتشل يتنافسان على كسب ودها، أحدهما كان لاعب كرة قدم سابق وصاحب مشاكل عديدة مع القانون واسمه بيرين أبشو والثاني كان صحفيا متزنا واسمه جون مارش. إختارت ميتشل صاحب السوابق أبشو ولكن ابشو لم يكن من النوع الملتزم وكان ينتقل من وظيفة إلى أخرى ولم يكن له مصدر دخل ثابت، إضطرت ميتشل إلى الاعتماد على نفسها ومن المفارقات في حياتها ان الرجل الثاني جون مارش الصحفي الذي رفضته ميتشل في السابق وفر لها عملا في صحيفته براتب 25 دولار في الأسبوع. إنتهى زواج ميتشل من بيرين ابشو بالطلاق عام 1924 وفي عام 1925 تزوجت ميتشل من مارش واعتزلت الصحافة.
روايتها
أصيبت ((مارغريت)) بمرض جعلها تلزم البيت في معظم الأوقات، فأخذت تسري عن نفسها بتنفيذ مشروع روائي ضخم يصور أحداث الحرب الأهلية بين ولايات الشمال والجنوب. وقد استدعى ذلك منها قراءة مستفيضة جدا في المراجع التاريخية والاجتماعية، ووجدت في ذل الجو العاصف من الوقائع والعواطف مهربا من حياة الركود والملل وآلام المرض وأوجاعه. وقضت في كتابة فصول الرواية ما بين سنة 1930، 1936. وكانت تتابع الشخصيات وتكتب الأحداث على غير نظام متسلسل، فتكتب فصلا ثم فصلا آخر، ثم تعود فتعدل في الفصول لتحافظ على التسلسل في النهاية. ولم تكن تحلم بنشر هذا العمل الضخم، ولكن الرواية ما أن نشرت حتى اعتبرت حدثا أدبيا مهما، وبيع من طبعتها الغالية أكثر من مليون نسخة في ستة أشهر. ومنحت جوائز عدة أدبية ومنها جائزة بليتزر عام 1937 وأخرجتها السينما بفيلم يحمل نفس اسم الرواية ((ذهب مع الريح)) أصدر عام 1939 وحقق الفيلم أعلى ربح في تاريخ هوليوود، وأحرز الرقم القياسي بفوزه بالكثير من الجوائز، وترجمت الرواية إلى معظم لغاتالعالم. واعتبرها الأمريكيون أشهر رواية في أدبهم في القرن العشرين في وقتها. وحظيت بإعجاب جميع الأمم لطابعها الإنساني.
وفاتها
في الحرب العالمية الثانية تطوعت ميتشل للعمل مع منظمة الصليب الأحمر الأمريكية وركزت نشاطها في إيصال الأمدادات الغذائيةوالطبية لبلدة فيموتييه (بالفرنسية: Vimoutiers‏) في فرنسا وحصلت نتيجة لجهودها على لقب المواطنة الفخرية لتلك البلدة الفرنسية في عام 1949. في 16 اغسطس 1949 تعرضت مارغريت ميتشل إلى حادث سيارة عندما كانت تعبر الشارع وتوفيت في المستشفى بعد خمسة أيام متأثرة بإصابتها. قيل أن سائق السيارة كان في حالة سكر، وأدين بالقتل غير العمد وتلقى حكماً بالسجن لأربعين عاماً مع الأعمال الشاقة. ذكر السائق أن ميتشل عبرت الشارع دون أن تلتفت إلى السيارات العابرة. توفيت مارغريت عن عمر يناهز 48 عاماً ودفنت في مقبرة أوكلند في أتلانتا. في 16 مايو 1997 تم تحويل المنزل الذي كتبت فيه ميتشل رواية ذهب مع الريح إلى متحف. يقع هذا المنزل في وسط أتلانتا ويحتوي على وثائق وشرائط أصلية لرواية وفيلم ذهب مع الريح مع مقتنيات شخصية لميتشل وهذا المتحف مفتوح على مدار الأسبوع وتكلفة دخوله تبلغ 12 دولاراً.

Margaret Munnerlyn Mitchell (November 8, 1900 – August 16, 1949) was an Americanauthor, who won the Pulitzer Prize in 1937 for her epic novelGone with the Wind, her only major publication. This novel is one of the most popular books of all time, selling more than 30 million copies (see list of best-selling books). The film adaptation of it, released in 1939, became the highest-grossing film in the history of Hollywood, and it received a record-breaking ten Academy Awards (a record since eclipsed by Ben Hur, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, Titanic). Mitchell has been honored by the United States Postal Service with a 1¢ Great Americans seriespostage stamp.
Early life
Margaret Mitchell was born in Atlanta, Georgia, to Eugene Mitchell, a lawyer, and Mary Isabelle, often referred to as Maybell, a suffragist of Irish Catholic origin. Mitchell's brother, Stephens, was four years her senior. Her childhood was spent in the laps of Civil War veterans and of her maternal relatives, who had lived through the Civil War
After graduating from Washington Seminary (now The Westminster Schools), she attended Smith College, but withdrew during her freshman year in 1918. She returned to Atlanta to take over the household after her mother's death earlier that year from the great Spanish flu pandemic of 1918.
Shortly afterward, she defied the conventions of her class and times by taking a job at the Atlanta Journal. Under the name Peggy Mitchell she wrote a weekly column for the newspaper's Sunday edition, thereby making her mark as one of the first female columnists at the South's largest newspaper. Mitchell's first professional writing assignment was an interview with an Atlanta socialite, whose couture-buying trip to Italy was interrupted by the Fascist takeover.
Mitchell married Berrien “Red” Upshaw in 1922, but they were divorced after it was revealed that he was a bootlegger and an abusive alcoholic. She later married Upshaw's friend, John Marsh, on July 4, 1925; Marsh had been best man at her first wedding and legend has it that both men courted Mitchell in 1921 and 1922, but Upshaw proposed first.[citation needed]
She was a distant cousin to famous gunfighter and dentist, Doc Holliday, who participated in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral. It is also thought[by whom?] that she modeled Ashley Wilkes, a main character in Gone with the Wind, after Holliday


ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 10:54 PM

جون باتيست بوكلان

يتمه : فقد الام في سن العاشرة.
مجاله: مؤلف كوميدي مسرحي.

(بالفرنسية: Jean-Baptiste Poquelin) الملقب موليير (Molière) عاش (باريس 1622- 1673 م) هو مؤلف كوميدي مسرحي فرنسي.

Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, known by his stage name Molière, (French pronunciation: [moˈljɛʁ]; baptised January 15, 1622 – February 17, 1673) was a French playwright and actor who is considered to be one of the greatest masters of comedy in Western literature. Among Molière's best-known works are Le Misanthrope (The Misanthrope), L'École des femmes (The School for Wives), Tartuffe ou L'Imposteur, (Tartuffe or the Hypocrite), L'Avare (The Miser), Le Malade imaginaire (The Imaginary Invalid), and Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (The Bourgeois Gentleman).
Born into a prosperous family and having studied at the Collège de Clermont (now Lycée Louis-le-Grand), Molière was well suited to begin a life in the theatre. Thirteen years as an itinerant actor helped him polish his comic abilities while he began writing, combining Commedia dell'Arte elements with the more refined French comedy.[2]
Through the patronage of a few aristocrats, including Philippe I, Duke of Orléans – the brother of Louis XIV – Molière procured a command performance before the King at the Louvre. Performing a classic play by Pierre Corneille and a farce of his own, Le Docteur amoureux (The Doctor in Love), Molière was granted the use of salle du Petit-Bourbon at the Louvre, a spacious room appointed for theatrical performances. Later, Molière was granted the use of the Palais-Royal. In both locations he found success among the Parisians with plays such as Les Précieuses ridicules (The Affected Ladies), L'École des maris (The School for Husbands) and L'École des femmes (The School for Wives). This royal favor brought a royal pension to his troupe and the title "Troupe du Roi" (The King's Troupe). Molière continued as the official author of court entertainments.
Though he received the adulation of the court and Parisians, Molière's satires attracted criticisms from moralists and the Roman Catholic Church. Tartuffe ou L'Imposteur (Tartuffe or the Hypocrite) and its attack on religious hypocrisy roundly received condemnations from the Church, while Dom Juan was banned from performance. Molière's hard work in so many theatrical capacities began to take its toll on his health and, by 1667, he was forced to take a break from the stage. In 1673, during a production of his final play, Le Malade imaginaire (The Imaginary Invalid), Molière, who suffered from pulmonary tuberculosis, was seized by a coughing fit and a haemorrhage while playing the hypochondriac Argan. He finished the performance but collapsed again and died a few hours later
Molière was born in Paris, the son of Jean Poquelin and Marie Cressé, the daughter of a prosperous bourgeois family.
Jean-Baptiste Poquelin lost his mother at the age of 10 and doesn't seem to have been particularly close to his father. After his mother's death, he lived with his father above the Pavillon des singes on the rue Saint-Honoré, an affluent area of Paris. It is likely that his education commenced with studies in a Parisian elementary school; this was followed with his enrollment in the prestigious JesuitCollège de Clermont, where he completed his studies in a strict academic environment.
In 1631, Jean Poquelin purchased from the court of Louis XIII the posts of "valet de chambre ordinaire et tapissier du Roi" ("valet of the King's chamber and keeper of carpets and upholstery"). His son assumed the same posts in 1641.[5] The title required only three months' work and an initial cost of 1,200 livres; the title paid 300 livres a year and provided a number of lucrative contracts. Poquelin also studied as a provincial lawyer some time around 1642, probably in Orléans, but it is not documented that he ever qualified. So far he had followed his father's plans, which had served him well; he had mingled with nobility at the Collège de Clermont and seemed destined for a career in office.
In June 1643, when Molière was 21, he decided to abandon his social class and pursue a career on the stage. Taking leave of his father, he joined the actress Madeleine Béjart, with whom he had crossed paths before, and founded L'Illustre Théâtre with 630 livres. They were later joined by Madeleine's brother and sister.
The new theatre troupe became bankrupt in 1645. Molière had become head of the troupe, due in part, perhaps, to his acting prowess and his legal training. However, the troupe had acquired large debts, mostly for the rent of the theatre (a court for jeu de paume), for which they owed 2000 livres. Historians differ as to whether his father or the lover of a member of his troupe paid his debts; either way, after a 24-hour stint in prison he returned to the acting circuit. It was at this time that he began to use the pseudonym Molière, possibly inspired by a small village of the same name in the Midi near Le Vigan. It was also likely that he changed his name to spare his father the shame of having an actor in the family (actors, although no longer vilified by the state under Louis XIV, were still not allowed to be buried in sacred ground).
After his imprisonment, he and Madeleine began a theatrical circuit of the provinces with a new theatre troupe; this life was to last about 12 years, during which he initially played in the company of Charles Dufresne, and subsequently created a company of his own, which had sufficient success and obtained the patronage of Philippe I, Duke of Orléans. Few plays survive from this period. The most noteworthy are L'Étourdi, ou le Contretemps and Le Docteur amoureux; with these two plays, Molière moved away from the heavy influence of the Italian improvisational Commedia dell'arte, and displayed his talent for mockery. In the course of his travels he met Armand, Prince of Conti, the governor of Languedoc, who became his patron, and named his company after him. This friendship later ended when Conti, having contracted syphilis from a courtesan, attempted to cure himself by reconciling himself with religion. Conti's religious advisor counseled him against maintaining actors and encouraged him to join Molière's enemies in the Parti des Dévots and the Compagnie de Saint Sacrement.
In Lyon, Mademoiselle Du Parc, known as Marquise, joined the company. Marquise was courted, in vain, by Pierre Corneille and later became the lover of Jean Racine. Racine offered Molière his tragedy Théagène et Chariclée (one of the first works he wrote after he had abandoned his theology studies), but Molière would not perform it, though he encouraged Racine to pursue his artistic career. It is said that soon thereafter Molière became angry with Racine when he was told that he had secretly presented his tragedy to the company of the Hôtel de Bourgogne as well.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 10:54 PM

مونتيسكيو

يتمه: ماتت امه وعمره 7 سنوات.
مجاله: فيلسوف فرنسي.

شارل لوي دي سيكوندا المعروف باسم مونتيسكيو ((بالإنجليزية: Montesquieu‏))؛ (18 يناير1689 - 10 فبراير1755فيلسوففرنسي صاحب نظرية فصل السلطات الذي تعتمده غالبية الأنظمة حاليا.
ولد مونسكيو في جنوب غرب فرنسا بالقرب من مدينة بوردو عام 1689 حيث تعلّم الحقوق وأصبح عضو برلمان عام 1714.
مؤلفاته
عام 1716 تأملات في أسباب عظمة الرومان وانحطاطهم. عام 1721 نشر كتابه الساخر "رسائل فارسية" وفيه انتقد المجتمع وأنظمة الحكم في أوروبا في ذلك الحين. جلب له الكتاب شهرة واسعة وكان سببا في قبوله للأكاديمية الفرنسية للعلوم.
عام 1734 نشر كتابا تحت عنوان "الملكية العالمية" قام بتقسيم الشعوب إلى شماليةوجنوبية وادعى أن الفرق في المناخ هو السبب الأساسي للاختلاف بين شعوب الشمال وشعوب الجنوب.
عام 1748 نشر مونتيسكيو أهم كتبه "روح القوانين" في جنيف في 31 جزءا وأضحى من أبرز المراجع في العلوم السياسية.
أفكاره

في كتابه روح القوانين شرح الفرق بين ثلاثة أنواع من أنظمة الحكم:
  • الملكية: يرث الحاكم فيه السلطة.
  • الديكتاتورية: يحكم الحاكم فيه وحده دون حدود قانونية ويثبّت حكمه بواسطة إرهاب المدنيين.
  • الجمهورية: نظام يحكم فيه الشعب أو ممثلوه.
يرى مونتيسكيو أن نظام الحكم الأمثل هو النظام الجمهوري. وقد ادعى أن على كل نظام حكم أن يصبو إلى ضمان حرية الإنسان ومن أجل ذلك يحب الفصل بين السلطات والحفاظ على توازن بينها: حصلت نظرية مونتسكيو على العديد من المؤيدين في أوروبا وأثرت مبادئها على دستور الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، إعلان حقوق الإنسان والمواطن وعلى دساتير العديد من الأنظمة الديموقراطية في عصرنا. مع ذلك فقد كان مونتيسكيو يعتقد بعدم جواز الانتقال بين طبقات المجتمع المختلفة ولم ير أنّ عامة الشعب مستحقين أن يحكموا.
Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (English pronunciation: /ˈmɒntɨskjuː/, French pronunciation: [mɔ̃tɛskjø]; 18 January 1689 – 10 February 1755), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French social commentator and political thinker who lived during the Enlightenment. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, taken for granted in modern discussions of government and implemented in many constitutions throughout the world. He was largely responsible for the popularization of the terms feudalism and Byzantine Empire.
He was born at the Château de la Brède in the southwest of France. His father, Jacques de Secondat, was a soldier with a long noble ancestry.
His mother, Marie Françoise de Pesnel who died when Charles de Secondat was seven, was a female inheritor of a large monetary inheritance who brought the title of barony of La Brède to the Secondat family.
After having studied at the CatholicCollege of Juilly, Charles-Louis de Secondat married. His wife, Jeanne de Lartigue, a Protestant, brought him a substantial dowry when he was 26. The next year, he inherited a fortune upon the death of his uncle, as well as the title Baron de Montesquieu and Président à Mortier in the Parliament of Bordeaux. By that time, England had declared itself a constitutional monarchy in the wake of its Glorious Revolution (1688–89), and had joined with Scotland in the Union of 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. In 1715 the long-reigning Louis XIV died and was succeeded by the five-year-old Louis XV. These national transformations impacted Montesquieu greatly; he would later refer to them repeatedly in his work.
Soon afterwards, he achieved literary success with the publication of his Lettres persanes (Persian Letters, 1721), a satire based on the imaginary correspondence of a Persian visitor to Paris, pointing out the absurdities of contemporary society. He next published Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence (Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans, 1734), considered by some scholars a transition from The Persian Letters to his master work. De l'Esprit des Lois (The Spirit of the Laws) was originally published anonymously in 1748 and quickly rose to a position of enormous influence. In France, it met with an unfriendly reception from both supporters and opponents of the regime. The Catholic Church banned l'Esprit – along with many of Montesquieu's other works – in 1751 and included it on the Index of Prohibited Books. It received the highest praise from the rest of Europe, especially Britain.
Montesquieu was also highly regarded in the British colonies in North America as a champion of British liberty (though not of American independence). Political scientist Donald Lutz found that Montesquieu was the most frequently quoted authority on government and politics in colonial pre-revolutionary British America, cited more by the American founders than any source except for the Bible.[1] Following the American secession, Montesquieu's work remained a powerful influence on many of the American founders, most notably James Madison of Virginia, the "Father of the Constitution". Montesquieu's philosophy that "government should be set up so that no man need be afraid of another" reminded Madison and others that a free and stable foundation for their new national government required a clearly defined and balanced separation of powers.
Besides composing additional works on society and politics, Montesquieu traveled for a number of years through Europe including Austria and Hungary, spending a year in Italy and 18 months in England before resettling in France. He was troubled by poor eyesight, and was completely blind by the time he died from a high fever in 1755. He was buried in the Église Saint-Sulpice, Paris.
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ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 10:55 PM

برنارد مونتجمري
يتمه : مات ابوه بعد شهر من ولادته.
مجاله: قائد عسكري عظيم.

(الفيلد مارشال برنارد لو مونتجمري) من أشهر القادة العسكريين في تاريخ إنجلترا، وصل حب وإعجاب الشعب البريطاني به إلى الحد الذي جعلهم يضعونه على درجةٍ واحدةٍ مع القائد الإنجليزي الشهير ويلنجتون الذي انتصر على نابليون في معركة ووترلو، ولِمَا لا؟ وقد حقق لوطنه ولدول الحلفاء مجتمعة ما كانوا يتمنونه من انتصارٍ ساحقٍ في المعركة الفاصلة في تاريخ الحرب العالمية الثانية، وهي معركة العلمين التي لولا انتصاره فيها لكان لنتائج الحرب شأنٌ آخر لا يرضاه الشعب الإنجليزي قطعًا


Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, KG, GCB, DSO, PC ( /məntˈɡʌmərɪəvˈæləmeɪn/; 17 November 1887 – 24 March 1976), often referred to as "Monty", was a British Army officer. He saw action in World War I, when he was seriously wounded, and during World War II he commanded the 8th Army from August 1942 in the Western Desert until the final Allied victory in Tunisia. This command included the Battle of El Alamein, a major turning point in the Western Desert Campaign. He subsequently commanded Eighth Army in Sicily and Italy before being given responsibility for planning the D-Day invasion in Normandy. He was in command of all Allied ground forces during Operation Overlord from the initial landings until after the Battle of Normandy. He then continued in command of the 21st Army Group for the rest of the campaign in North West Europe. As such he was the principal field commander for the failed airborne attempt to bridge the Rhine at Arnhem and the Allied Rhine crossing. On 4 May 1945 he took the German surrender at Luneburg Heath in northern Germany. After the War he became Commander-in-Chief of the British Forces of Occupation in Germany and then Chief of the Imperial General Staff.
Montgomery was born in Kennington, London, in 1887, the fourth child of nine, to an Anglo-IrishAnglicanpriest, The ReverendHenry Hutchinson Montgomery, and Maud Montgomery (née Farrar).
Henry Montgomery, at the time the Vicar of St Mark's, Kennington, was the second son of the noted Indian administrator, Sir Robert Montgomery, who died a month after Bernard's birth.
Bernard's mother Maud was the daughter of the well-known preacher Frederic William Farrar, and was 18 years younger than her husband. After the death of Sir Robert Montgomery, Henry inherited the Montgomery ancestral estate of New Park at Moville, a town on the Inishowen Peninsula of north County Donegal in the west of Ulster.
However, there was still £13,000 to pay on the mortgage, a fairly large amount of money in the 1880s, and Henry was at the time still only a mere parish priest. Despite selling off all of those farms that were at Ballynally, "there was barely enough to keep up New Park and pay for the blasted summer holiday" (i.e., at New Park).It was a financial relief of some magnitude that in 1889 Henry was made Bishop of Tasmania, then still a colony. He considered it his duty to spend as much time as possible in the outlying country of Tasmania and was away six months at a time. While he was away his wife, still in her mid-twenties, gave her children "constant" beatings,[12] then ignored them most of the time as she performed the public duties of the bishop's wife. Of his siblings, Sibyl would die prematurely in Tasmania, and Harold, Donald and Una would all emigrate.[13] In the absence of her husband, Maud Montgomery took little active interest in the education of her young children other than to have them taught by tutors brought across from England. The loveless environment made Bernard something of a bully, as he himself later recalled "I was a dreadful little boy. I don't suppose anybody would put up with my sort of behaviour these days." Later in life Montgomery refused to allow his son David to have anything to do with his grandmother and he refused to attend her funeral in 1949.[The family returned home once for the Lambeth Conference in 1897, and Bernard and his brother Harold were educated for a term at The King's School, Canterbury.in 1901, Bishop Montgomery became secretary of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and the family returned to London. Montgomery went to St Paul's School and then the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, from which he was almost expelled for setting fire to a fellow cadet during a fight with pokers. On graduation he joined the 1st Battalion, The Royal Warwickshire Regiment in September 1908 as a second lieutenan, first seeing service in India until 1913. He was promoted to lieutenant in 1910

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 10:56 PM

مراد الرابع

يتمه: فقد الاب وهو في سن العاشرة.
مجاله: قائد.
بن أحمد الأول بن محمد الثالث بن مراد الثالث بن سليم بن سليمان القانوني بن سليم الأول بن بايزيد الثاني بن محمد الفاتح هو الخليفة العثماني الثامن عشر، عاش بين عامي 1021 هـو1049 هـ/1612و1640 م. حكم 17 عاما منذ عام 1032 هـ/1623 م وكان عمره آنذاك 11 عاما ميلاديا. ضمت بغداد للدولة العثمانية في عهده عام 1639 م. كان مولعا بالشعر كما كان موسيقيًا مميزًا.
تولى أمر الخلافة بعد عزل عمه مصطفى الأول عام 1032 هـ. وتولى الخلافة وهو صغير فسيطر عليه الإنكشارية في بداية الأمر. حدث تمرد في بغداد فأرسل الخليفة جيشًا إليها ولكن الصفويين دخلوا بغداد واستولوا عليها، وبعد وفاة الشاه عباس وتولى ابنه الصغير مكانه استغل العثمانيون الفرصة وحاصروا بغداد ولكنهم لم يتمكنوا من اقتحامها.
جلوسه على السلطه
تولى السلطان مراد الرابع عرشالدولة العثمانية، والأخطار تحدق بها من الداخل والخارج؛ فقد بويع بالسلطنة بعد عزل عمه السلطان مصطفى الأول في (15 من ذي القعدة 1032هـ= 11 من سبتمبر 1623م)، وكانت فرق الإنكشارية تعبث بمصالح البلاد العليا، وتعيث في الأرض فسادًا، حتى إنهم قتلوا السلطان "عثمان الثاني" (1027 ـ 1031 هـ= 1618 - 1622م) وكان سلطانًا -على الرغم من صغر سنه- يحاول أن ينهض بالدولة، ويبث فيها روح الإصلاح، ويبعث الحياة في مؤسسات الدولة التي شاخت وهرمت، لكن الإنكشارية لم تمكنه من ذلك، واعترضت طريقه، وتدخلت فيما لا يعنيها، ولم يجد السلطان مفرًا من تقليص نفوذهم، وقمع تمردهم، ولو كان ذلك بتصفية وجودهم العسكري، لكنهم كانوا أسبق منه، فأشعلوا ثورة في عاصمة الخلافة في (رجب 1031هـ= مايو 1622م) عرفت في التاريخ بـ"الهائلة العثمانية" راح ضحيتها السلطان الشاب الذي لم يجاوز عمره الثامنة عشرة.
وبعد مقتل السلطان ولّوا السلطان مصطفى الأول وكان لا يملك من أمره شيئا، وصارت مقاليد البلاد في يد الإنكشارية، وعمّت أرجاء الدولة الفوضى والاضطرابات، وظلت ثمانية عشر شهرًا دون أن تجد يدًا حازمة تعيد للدولة أمنها وسلامتها.
واستمرارًا لهذا العبث قام الإنكشارية بعزل السلطان مصطفى الأول وولوا مكانه ابن أخيه السلطان "مراد الرابع بن أحمد الأول"، وكان حدثًا لا يتجاوز الثانية عشرة، فصارت أمه "كوسم مهبيكر" نائبة السلطنة، تقوم بالأمر دونه، لكن مقاليد الأمور كانت بيد الإنكشارية التي علا شأنها وازداد نفوذها، واطمأنت إلى أن السلطنة في يد ضعيفة.
ولاية السلطان
عانت الدولة العثمانية في الفترة الأولى من ولاية مراد الرابع عدم الاستقرار واستمرار الاضطرابات والفوضى الداخلية التي تجاوزت عاصمة الخلافة إلى أطرافها؛ حيث أشهر والي طرابلس الشام استقلاله، وطرد الإنكشارية من ولايته، وفعل الشيء نفسه "أباظة باشا" والي "أرضروم"، واستولى على أنقرة وصادر إقطاعيات الإنكشارية.
وانتهزت الدولة الصفوية هذه الفوضى التي عمّت الدولة العثمانية فاستولت على بغداد، وحاولت الدولة أن تستردها، فبعثت جيشًا يقوده الصدر الأعظم "حافظ باشا" فحاصر المدينة في (1033 هـ= 1624م) وضيق عليها الخناق، ولكن دون جدوى فتذمّر الإنكشارية، وأجبروا الصدر الأعظم على رفع الحصار والعودة إلى الموصل، ومنها إلى ديار بكر، وهناك ثارت عليه الإنكشارية، فعزله السلطان حتى تهدأ الأوضاع، وعين مكانه "خليل باشا" الذي سبق أن تولى هذا المنصب قبل ذلك، لكنه لم يستمر طويلا، وخلفه "خسرو باشا" في سنة (1035هـ= 1627م).
وبعد تولّيه الصدارة إتجه إلى أرضروم، ونجح في إجبار أباظة باشا على التسليم، والدخول في طاعة الدولة، وذلك في سنة (1037هـ= 1629م) لكنه لم يفلح في استرداد بغداد، واضطر إلى رفع الحصار عنها في سنة (1039هـ= 1631م) وفي طريق العودة عزله السلطان مراد الرابع وأعاد حافظ باشا إلى منصب الصدارة مرة أخرى.
Sultan Murad IV

Murad IV Ghazi (Ottoman Turkish: مراد رابع Murād-i rābi‘) (July 26/27, 1612 – February 9, 1640) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1623 to 1640, known both for restoring the authority of the state and for the brutality of his methods. Murad IV was born in Istanbul, the son of Sultan Ahmed I (1603–17) and the ethnic GreekValide Sultan Kadinefendi Kösem Sultan (also known as Mahpeyker), originally named Anastasia. Brought to power by a palace conspiracy in 1623, he succeeded his mad uncle Mustafa I (1617–18, 1622–23). He was only eleven when he took the throne. He married Aisha, without issue.




ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 10:57 PM

إبراهيم الأول
يتمه : فقد ابوه وهو في سن السابعة
مجاله: قائد .
(1615 م - 1648م)، الخليفة العثماني التاسع عشر. جلس السلطان على العرش بعد وفاة أخيه مراد الرابع في (16 من شوال 1049 هـ – 1640)، وكان في الخامسة والعشرين من عمره، وقضى فترة إمارته في عهد أخويه عثمان الثاني ومراد الرابع بعيداً عن أي مهام، وشاهد مقتل إخوته الأربعة الكبار، وبقي ينتظر مثل مصيرهم، وهذا جعله عصبياً ومضطرباً لا يستقر على شيء، كما أنه لم يكمل تحصيله العلمي، ولم تتوافر له المهارة العسكرية بسبب العزلة التي فرضت عليه، وفي بداية حكمه حاول أن يكون مثل أخيه السلطان مراد الرابع، ولكن لم تكن له صفاته؛ فاضطربت أمور الدولة، وتوالى عزل الصدور العظام أو قتلهم، ولأن الدولة كانت قد استعادت هيبتها في عهد سلفه مراد الرابع فإن قصور إمكانات السلطان وضعف سياسته لم تؤثر تأثيراً قوياً في جسد الدولة الكبير
تنصيب السلطان إبراهيم
توفي السلطان مراد الرابع ولم يترك أولادا فذهبت ولاية عهده إلى أخيه إبراهيم الذي كان مسجونا آنذاك، وعندما اندفعت الحاشية المالكة لتهنئ السلطان الجديد، ظن أنهم يريدون قتله وأنها مكيدة من أخيه لاختبار ولائه، فرفض الملك وأعرض عنهم وقال لهم بأنه يفضل السجن ولم يصدقهم حتى قابلته أمه ومعها جثة السلطان مراد، فتيقن من الخبر ورضي أن يتولى سدة الخلافة، وتقلد سيف عثمان بن أرطغل في مسجد أبي أيوب الأنصاري، وكان مما خطب أنه قال:الحمدلله اللهم جعلت عبداً ضعيفاً مثلي لائقاً لهذا المقام اللهم اصلح واحسن حال شعبي مدة حكمي.
the son of Sultan Ahmed I (1603–17) and the ethnic GreekValide Sultan Kadinefendi Kösem Sultan (also known as Mahpeyker), originally named Anastasia.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 10:57 PM

مصطفى كامل

يتمه: مات ابوه وعمره 20 سنه.
مجاله: قائد.


ولد مصطفى في (1 رجب 1291هـ = 14 من أغسطس 1874م)، وكان أبوه "علي محمد" من ضباط الجيش المصري، وقد رُزِقَ بابنه مصطفى وهو في الستين من عمره،ومات عام 1894 وعُرِف عن الابن النابه حبُّه للنضال والحرية منذ صغره؛ وهو الأمر الذي كان مفتاحشخصيته وصاحبه على مدى 34 عامًا، هي عمره القصير.

والمعروف عنه أنه تلقىتعليمه الابتدائي في ثلاث مدارس، أما التعليم الثانوي فقد التحق بالمدرسة الخديوية،أفضل مدارس مصر آنذاك، والوحيدة أيضًا، ولم يترك مدرسة من المدارس إلا بعد صدام لميمتلك فيه من السلاح إلا ثقته بنفسه وإيمانه بحقه.

وفي المدرسة الخديوية أسسجماعة أدبية وطنية كان يخطب من خلالها في زملائه، وحصل على الثانوية وهو في السادسةعشرة من عمره، ثم التحق بمدرسة الحقوق سنة (1309هـ = 1891م)، التي كانت تعد مدرسةالكتابة والخطابة في عصره، فأتقن اللغة الفرنسية، والتحق بجمعيتين وطنيتين، وأصبحيتنقل بين عدد من الجمعيات؛ وهو ما أدى إلى صقل وطنيته وقدراتهالخطابية.

وقد استطاع أن يتعرف على عدد من الشخصيات الوطنية والأدبية، منهم: "إسماعيل صبري" الشاعر الكبير ووكيل وزارة العدل، والشاعر الكبير "خليل مطران"،و"بشارة تكلا" مؤسس جريدة "الأهرام"، الذي نشر له بعض مقالاته في جريدته، ثم نشرمقالات في جريدة "المؤيد".

وفي سنة (1311هـ = 1893م) ترك مصطفى كامل مصرليلتحق بمدرسة الحقوق الفرنسية؛ ليكمل بقية سنوات دراسته، ثم التحق بعد عام بكليةحقوق "طولوز"، واستطاع أن يحصل منها على شهادة الحقوق، ووضع في تلك الفترة مسرحية "فتح الأندلس" التي تعتبر أول مسرحية مصرية، وبعد عودته إلى مصر سطع نجمه في سماءالصحافة، واستطاع أن يتعرف على بعض رجال الثقافة والفكر في فرنسا، وازدادت شهرته معهجوم الصحافة البريطانية عليه.

وسافر مصطفى كامل إلى برلين في نطاق حملتهالسياسية والدعائية ضد الاحتلال البريطاني، وأصبح اسمه من الأسماء المصرية اللامعةفي أوربا، وتعرَّف على الصحفية الفرنسية الشهيرة "جولييت آدم"، التي فتحت صفحاتمجلتها "لانوفيل ريفو" ليكتب فيها، وقدمته لكبار الشخصيات الفرنسية؛ فألقى بعضالمحاضرات في عدد من المحافل الفرنسية، وزار الدولة العثمانية وعددًا من الدولالأوربية.

وفي عام (1316هـ = 1898م) ظهر أول كتاب سياسي له بعنوان "كتابالمسألة الشرقية"، وهو من الكتب الهامة في تاريخ السياسة المصرية. وفي عام (1318هـ = 1900م) أصدر جريدة اللواء اليومية، واهتم بالتعليم، وجعله مقرونًا بالتربية، وكانيقول: "إني أعتقد أن التعليم بلا تربية عديم الفائدة".

عباس الثاني والحزبالوطني

تولَّى الخديوي عباس الثاني حكم مصر في (1310هـ = 1892م) وكان عمره 17 عاما، وكان مصطفى كامل يكبره بعام واحد، وقد أراد عباس أن يستقل بالسلطة عنالسيطرة الفعلية في البلاد، وهي الإنجليز؛ فبدأ عام (1313هـ = 1895م) في تأليف لجنةسرية للاتصال بالوطنيين المصريين من أجل الدعاية لقضية استقلال مصر، وفي فرنسا بصفةخاصة، وقد عُرفت باسم "جمعية أحباء الوطن السرية".

والتقى مصطفى كامل وأحمدلطفي السيد وعدد من الوطنيين بمنزل محمد فريد، وتم تأليف "جمعية الحزب الوطني" كجمعية سرية، رئيسها الخديوي عباس، وسافر أحمد لطفي السيد إلى أوربا، والتقى ببعضالمصريين هناك، وبعد عودته كتب تقريرا عن رحلته، قرر فيه أن مصر لا يمكن أن تتحررإلا بمجهود أبنائها، وأن المصلحة الوطنية تقضي أن يرأس الخديوي الحركة.

ويرىالبعض في ذلك أزمة خطيرة صاحبت الحزب الوطني منذ بداياته الأولى؛ إذ إن نشاطهالسياسي والدعائي بدأ تحت ولاية الخديوي عباس ورعايته المادية والمعنوية، والتيتأثرت بعوامل الشد والجذب بين الخديوي والإنجليز؛ فانعكست على علاقة الخديوي بالحزبالوطني، والتي انتقلت من الرعاية والصداقة إلى قطع الصلات بالحزب، بعد الفشل فيترويضه، ثم مطاردة قادته، وإغلاق صحفهم، وتعليق أنشطتهم، واتهامهم بمحاولاتاغتيال.

واتخذ أعضاء جمعية الحزب الوطني أسماء مستعارة لهم، فكان الاسمالمستعار للخديوي: "الشيخ"، أما الاسم المستعار لمصطفى كامل فهو: "أبوالفدا".

الخديوي ومصطفى كامل

كان مصطفى كامل لسان حال الجمعية؛ فسافرإلى بعض الدول للدعاية للقضية المصرية واستقلال مصر، غير أنه أدرك حقيقة هامة، وهيأن أسلوب الدعاية للقضية المصرية في أوربا لا يكفي لحدوث الاستقلال، وأن العبءالأكبر يجب أن يقع على عاتق المصريين.

أما الخديوي عباس؛ فقد أدرك أنمناصرته العلنية للحركة الوطنية ضد الإنجليز أدت إلى تقليص نفوذه أمام سلطة ونفوذالمعتمد البريطاني في مصر اللورد كرومر؛ فبدأ في فتح صفحات من التقارب مع الإنجليز،جاء بعضها على حساب الحركة الوطنية؛ حيث استدعى مصطفى كامل من أوربا حتى تتوقفحملاته الدعائية ضد الإنجليز، ولكن مصطفى كامل رفض؛ فبدأت العلاقات بينهما تأخذطابعًا غير مستقر، تحكمه مواقف الخديوي ومصالحه.

وقد اتخذ الخديوي سياسةالوفاق الظاهري مع الإنجليز والمقاومة السرية ضدهم، ولكن هذه السياسة لم تدم طويلاًليأس الخديوي من أي تعضيد يأتيه من أوربا، خاصة من فرنسا التي شكَّلت سياستها معمصر بما يتواءم مع مصالحها، وتحلَّى ذلك في الاتفاق الودي بفرنسا وبريطانيا سنة (1322هـ = 1904م)؛ حيث اتفق الطرفان على أن تطلق فرنسا يد بريطانيا في وادي النيل،وأن تطلق بريطانيا يد فرنسا في المغرب؛ فكان هذا الاتفاق ضربة شديدة للحركةالوطنية، فبدأت تبتعد عن الخديوي بعد أن كانت تتخذ منه أداة لصمودهاوقوتها.

وحسم مصطفى كامل أمره وكتب رسالة إلى الخديوي في (شعبان 1322هـ = أكتوبر 1904م) قال فيها: "رفعت إلى مقامكم السامي أن الحالة السياسية الحاضرة تقضيعليَّ أن أكون بعيدًا عن فخامتك، وأن أتحمل وحدي مسؤولية الخطة التي اتبعتها نحوالاحتلال والمحتلين".

على أن مصطفى كامل لم يكفّ عن توجيه النقد للخديويكلما أخطأ، ومن ذلك: نقده لوقوف الخديوي تحت العلم الإنجليزي، واستعراض جيشالاحتلال في ميدان عابدين، وتصريح الخديوي عباس عندما تولى "جورست" مندوبًا ساميًافي مصر بدلاً من "كرومر"، والذي قال فيه: "إن الاحتلال البريطاني أفضل من أي احتلالآخر"؛ فكتب مصطفى مقالاً في اللواء عام (1325هـ = 1907م) قال فيه: "إن كل مصري صادقلا يقبل أن يكون حكم مصر بيد سمو الخديوي بمفرده، أو بيد المعتمد البريطاني، أو بيدالاثنين معًا".

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 10:58 PM

روبرت شومان


يتمه: مات ابوه وهو صغير وتم تبنيه من قبل عائلة صديق لوالده.
مجاله: موسيقار عظيم.
زهلول - الموسوعة العالمية المجانية
مؤلف موسيقى ألماني، ذاعت شهرته بفضل مؤلفاته الرائعة على البيانو ، وصفه نقاد بأنه أهم مؤلف في الموسيقى الرومانسية الألمانية.

حياته

ولد روبرت شومان في مدينة زويكو في ألمانيا في 8 حزيران/يونيو عام 1810 لأسرة بورجوازية مثقفة تملك مكتبة لبيع الكتب الأدبية، ليصبح أول موسيقي رومانسي متمكن من النصوص الأدبية الفلسفية. بدأ دراسة الموسيقى في التاسعة من عمره وانكب على تأليف القصص والمسرحيات في حين أراد له والده دراسة الحقوق. تتلمذ على يد عازف البيانو الشهير فردريك فيك ثم تزوج ابنته. أصيب بانهيار عصبي وصل به الحال إلى محاولة الانتحار ولكن تم إنقاذه، وتوفي في مدينة أدونييخ قرب بون في 29 تموز/يوليو عام 1856 وهو في سن مبكرة لا يتجاوز السادسة والأربعين من عمره.
مؤلفاته

تمثل مؤلفات شومان الحالتين النفسيتين المتناقضتين للموسيقى الرومانسية، إحداهما عاطفية نابضة، والأخرى هادئة وتأملية، من بين أعماله الشهيرة على البيانو: السمفونية أتيودي عام 1834، وفانتازيا من السلم الموسيقي الكبير عام 1836 وحفل موسيقي من السلم الموسيقي الصغير عام 1845.
وألف شومان أيضا عدد من المقطوعات القصيرة، كثير منها في شكل مجموعات، و تشمل "بابيلونز" عام 1829 - 1831، "كرنفال" عام 1834 - 1835، وقد نشرت مختارات من أعماله الموسيقية للصغار ومجموعة من المقطوعات الموسيقية لطلبة البيانو عام 1848.
ألف شومان أربع سمفونيات، وموسيقى الحجرة (العزف) وموسيقى كورالية، وأعمالا أخرى، تأتي أعماله في مرتبة أعمال فرانز شوبرت نفسها من بين أفضل الأغاني الألمانية، فقد كان لشومان تأثير قوي على المؤلفين الموسيقيين المختلفين في أواخر القرن التاسع عشر الميلادي.
أهم أعماله

خماسية مقام بيمول ماجور للبيانو والوتريات وثلاث رباعيات وترية
الموسيقى الغنائية
المجموعة الغنائية حب شاعر، وحب وحياة امرأة, أوبرا جينوفيفا

ومن أعماله أيضا رباعية وترية مقام مي بيمول ماجور, ثلاث ثلاثيات للبيانو, سوناتا للكمان والبيانو, ثلاث سوناتات للبيانو وأعمال أخرى.

(1810 - 1856)

Robert Schumann (June 8, 1810 - July 29, 1856) was the arch-Romantic composer, thoroughly committed intellectually and emotionally to the idea of music being composed to register the feelings, thoughts and impressions garnered by a sensitive spirit on its journey through life.
Schumann was born into a devoted family based in Zwickau, 40 miles south of Leipzig. His musical and literary leanings were encouraged by his father who secured a tutor for him; although the lessons were rudimentary, the boy was composing little pieces by the age of seven. He entered Zwickau Gymnasium aged 10, matriculating in 1828; the latter part of his time there was increasingly spent writing, especially poetry.
While at the Gymnasium his beloved father died, leaving his mother with no alternative but to place Robert under the guardianship of a family friend. It was decided that Schumann should study law at Leipzig University, which he joined in 1828.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 10:59 PM

جيرار دونيفرال



2يتمه : ماتت امه خلال عامه الـ


مجاله: اديب فرنسي.



ولد جيرار دونيفرال في الثامن والعشرين من ماي 1808 بباريس وبعد عامين على ولادته توفيت والدته وهي برفقة والده الذي كان يشتغل طبيبا في الجيش الفرنسي على عهد نابوليون.





بدأ إسم دونيرفال يتألق مع ترجمته لأعمال غوته وخصوصا ( فوست 1و2 ) التي صدرت سنة 1827 وقد عبر غوته عن إعجابه بهذه الترجمة غير مامرة إلى درجة أنه اعتبرها عملا أدبيا أرقى إبداعا من مصدره الأصلي وتمنى غوته لو كان قد ألف ( فوست 1و2 ) باللغة الفرنسية .



كان لجيرار دونيرفال علاقات صداقة قوية بالعديد من مجايليه الأدباء أمثال ( فيكتور هوجو ) و ( تيوفيل غوتييه) وأسس برفقة صديقه ( بيتروس بوريل ) جماعة ( شباب فرنسا ) كما ساند في نفس المرحلة جماعة ( الحداثيين) في خضم الجدل الأدبي والفكري الذي تفجر في 25 فبراير سنة 1830 حول كتابات ( هوجو ) .



في سنة 1835 سيستقر ببيت صديقه ( كاميل روجيي ) وسيؤسسان ما كان يعرف في أواخر القرن التاسع عشر بتيار ( البوهيمية الذهبية ) وقد أثار دونيرفال خصوصيات هذا التيار في كتاب له عن المسرح المعاصر صدر في 1852 .



كان لمقالات ( جيني كولون ) تأثيرها وحفرها العميق في نفس دونيفرال ، سيتحول هذا التعلق ب ( جيني ) إلى ما يشبه التعلق بالأم أو بأي سيدة مثالية ... ومنذ سنة 1841 ستنتاب دونيفرال نوبات خبل ستقوده في النهاية إلى مصحة الدكتور ( بلانش ) .



كان دونيرفال وهو في تلك الحالة النفسية المنهارة يتردد بين السفر والعودة إلى المشفى ، فقد زار كلا من ألمانيا والشرق الأوسط وألف كتابا وسمه ب ( رحلة إلى الشرق ) صدر في سنة 1851 . وخلال الأربعينات من القرن التاسع عشر سافر إلى بلجيكا ثم إلى هولاندا ولندن وسجل روبورتاجات وانطباعات عن هذه الأسفار . ولم ينحصر اهتمامه الثقافي والأدبي فقط في ما يسمى بأدب الأسفار والرحلة بل ألف العديد من القصص كما قام بترجمة أشعار صديقه ( هنريش هين ) التي صدرت في 1848 .



ستعرف آواخر سنوات عمر جيرار دونيرفال حالات انهيارنفسي ومادي لكنها عرفت من جهة أخرى أرقى مرحلة عمره الإبداعية وأجملها بمؤازرة الدكتور ( بلانش ) وهكذا صدرت له ( بنات النار ) و ( أوريليا أو الحلم والحياة في 1854 .)



كان ل دونيرفال الأثر الواضح على الحركة السوريالية بتأكيده على أهمية دلالة الحلم في الأعمال الأدبية . وقد تأثر بآرائه تلك أعظم الكتاب والروائيين من أمثال ( مارسيل بروست ) و ( روني دومال ) و( أرتور رامبو ) الذي استلهم الكثير من قصائده وصوره الشعرية من إبداعات دونيرفال وخصوصا مؤلفه ( أوريليا أو الحلم والحياة ) .



في 25 يناير من سنة 1853 وبإحدى الحانات البئيسة بشارع ( فياي لانتيرن ) سيعثرأحد المارة على جيرار دونيرفال مشنوقا وفي جيبه رسالة إلى عمته يقول فيها ( لاتنتظريني هذا المساء ، ستكون الليلة حالكة وبيضاء )





بعض أعماله





1851 : رحلة إلى الشرق


1852 : البوهيمية الذهبية


1852 : لوريلي ، ذكريات ألمانيا


1853 : القصور الصغرى للبوهيمية


1854 : بنات النار


1855 : أوريليا أو الحلم والحياة





في المسرح


1839 : الخيميائي


1846 : مسرح الحياة الشرقية

1850 : عربة الطفل

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:00 PM

نادر شاه أفشار

يتمه: مات ابوه وهو صغير ويحكى انه هو وامه تم اختطافهم وعملوا كعبيد لكن نادر تمكن لاحقا من الهرب واصبح رئيس عصابة وهو صغير.
مجاله : قائد عبقري – مؤسس الاسرة الافشارية.

(التركماني) ويعرف كذلك باسم "نادر قـُلي بگ" أو "تـَهْماسـْپ قلي خان" (6 أغسطس1698 - 19 يونيو1747) شاه إيران من 1736 إلى 1747، ومؤسس الأسرة الأفشارية التي حكمت إيران.
وكان قبل ذلك قائد عسكري عبقرياً لآخر الشاهات الصفويين، ويصفه بعض المؤرخين بأنه كان نابوليونبلاد الفرس أو الإسكندر الثاني. كان له الفضل في حركة المقاومة العسكرية لتحرير إيران من الاحتلال الأفغاني الذي قامت به قبيلة الگلزاي الأفغانية (ذات الأصول الپشتونية) منطلقاً من مدينة "مشهد". وبعد نجاحه انتهى به الأمر إلى أن نصب نفسه شاهاً (1736-1747) وأخذ اسم نادر شاه.
ينحدر نادر شاه من قبيلة أفشارالتركمانية من شمال فارس، التي أمدت الدولة الصفوية بالقوة العسكرية منذ عهد إسماعيل الصفوي.
يعتبر نادر شاه واحداً من أكبر الغزاة الفاتحين في تاريخ إيران الحديث حيث قام عام 1737 م بالاستيلاء على أفغانستان وبعض الأجزاء من وسط آسيا - خانات خيوة[- ثم قاد حملة (1738-1739) إلى الهند، تمكن فيها من الاستيلاء على دلهي في 21 مارس1738، حيث نهب دلهي واستولى على مجوهرات عرش الطاووس.
انتصر في معارك ضد الأفغان, العثمانيين, الروسوالمغول. نادر تمثل خطى الفاتحين العظام من وسط آسيا, جنگيز خانوتيمور, فحاول أن يقلد إنجازاتهم العسكرية و- خصوصاً لاحقاً في حكمه - فظاعاتهم. انتصارات نادر شاه جعلت منه لفترة وجيزة أقوى حاكم في الشرق الأوسط, إلا أن امبراطوريته ما لبثت أن تفككت بسرعة بعد اغتياله في 1747. نادر شاه كان آخر غزاة آسيا العظام. ويعتبر نادر أنبغ قائد عسكري في تاريخ إيران ويـُنسب إليه فضل قوة وأهمية إيران بين العثمانيينوالمغول.
في 1706-8 ثار أفغانيو قندهار بقيادة مير (أمير) فايز وطردوا الفرس. وغزا ابنه مير محمود فارس، وخلع الحاكم الصفوي حسيناً، ونصب نفسه شاهاً. وقد دعم الدين سلاحه، لأن الأفغانيين كانوا يتبعون المذهب السني، ويكفرون الفرس المتشيعين. وقتل محمود في سورة غضب ثلاثة آلاف من حرس حسين وثلاثمائة من أشراف الفرس، ونحو مائتي طفل اشتبه في أنهم استنكروا قتل آبائهم. وبعد راحة طويلة قتل محمود في يوم واحد (7 فبراير 1725) جميع الأحياء من أفراد الأسرة المالكة خلاً حسيناً واثنين من أبنائه الصغار. ثم التاث عقل محمود، فقتله وهو لا يزال في السابعة والعشرين ابن عمه أشرف (22 أبريل 1725) الذي نادى بنفسه شاهاً. وهكذا بدأ سفك الدماء الذي هد كيان فارس في ذلك القرن.
واستنجد طهماسب بن حسين بروسيا وتركيا، فاستجابت بالاتفاق على اقتسام فارس فيما بينهما (1725). ودخل جيش تركي فارس واستول على همدان وقزوين والمراغة، ولكن هزمه أشرف قرب كرمانشاه. وكان الجنود الأتراك يفتقرون إلى الحماسة، فقد تساءلوا أي سبب يدعوهم لمقاتلة الأفغانيين، وهم أخوة لهم سنيون على شاكلتهم، ليردوا الصفويين الشيعيين الزنادقة إلى الحكم. وتصالح الأتراك مع أشرف ولكنهم احتفظوا بالأقاليم التي فتحوها (1727).
وبدا أن أشرف قد غدا الآن في أمان، ولكن ما مضي عليه عام حتى تحدى سلطانه المغصوب الدخيل ظهور رجل فارسي مغمور انقض على العدو في بضع سنين، فحقق انتصارات من أروع وأفظع ما سجله تاريخ الحروب قاطبة. وقد ولد هذا المقاتل واسمه نادر قيلي (أي عبد الله) في خيمة بشمال شرقي إيران (1686) وكان يعين أباه على رعي ما يملكان من قطعان الغنم والماعز، ولم يتح له من التعليم غير ما لقنته الحياة الشاقة المحفوفة بالمخاطر. فلما بلغ الثامنة عشرة وخلف أباه كبيراً لأسرته اختطفه هو وأمه المغيرون الأزبك وحملوهما إلى خيوة حيث باعوهما عبيداً. وماتت الأم في ذل السر، ولكن نادراً هرب وأصبح زعيماً لعصابة لصوص، واستولى على كالات ونيشابور ومشهد، وأعلن ولاءه وولاء هذه المدن للشاه طهماسب، وتعهد بطرد الأفغانيين من فارس ورد عرش فارس إلى طهماسب. وقد أنجز هذا كله في حملات متلاحقة (1729-30) ورد طهماسب إلى عرشه، فعين نادراً سلطاناً على خراسان وسيستان وكرمان ومازندران.
وما لبث القائد المظفر أن شرع في استرداد الأقاليم التي استولت عليها تركيا. فاستطاع بهزيمة الترك هزيمة فاصلة في همدان (1731) أن يخضع العراق وأزربيجان لحكم الفرس. ثم نمى إليه نبأ تمرد في خراسان، فرفع الحصار عن أروان وزحف ألفاً وأربعمائة ميل عبر العراق وإيران ليحاصر هراة، وهو زحف يتضاءل بالقياس إليه الزاحف الشهير الذي عبر فيه فردريك الأكبر ألمانيا مراراً في حرب السنين السبع. ونزل طهماسب بشخصه أثناء ذلك إلى ساحة القتال ضد الترك فخسر كل ما كسبه نادر، ونزل عن جورجيا وأرمينيا لتركيا نظير تعهد الترك بمساعدته ضد روسيا (1732). فأسرع نادر قافلاً من الشرق وأنهى المعاهدة، وخلع طهماسب وسجنه، وأجلس على العرش غلاماً لطهماسب لم يجاوز عمره ستة أشهر باسم الشاه عباس الثالث، ونادى بنفسه وصياً على الصبي، وأرسل إلى تركيا إعلاناً بالحرب.
ثم زحف على الترك بجيش عدته ثمانون ألف مقاتل جندهم بالإقناع أو بالإرهاب. وعلى مقربة من سامراء التقى بجيش عرمرم من الترك يقودهم توبال عثمان من محفته لبتر ساقيه. وأطلقت النار مرتين على جوادي نادر أسفله، وفر حامل علمه ظناً منه أنه قتل، وانقلبت عليه فرقة عربية كان يعتمد على معونتها، وهكذا كانت هزيمة الفرس هزيمة نكراء ماحقة (18 يوليو 1733). ولكنه لملم فلول جيشه في همدان، وجند آلافاً جدداً، وسلحهم وأطعمهم، ثم كر على الترك وبطش بهم في ليلان في مذبحة رهيبة لقي فيها توبال عثمان حتفه. ثم اندلعت ثورة أخرى في جنوب غربي فارس، فشق نادر طريقه من الغرب إلى الشرق، وهزم الزعيم المتمرد فانتحر. وفي عودته عبر فارس والعراق، التقى بثمانين ألف تركي في بغاوند (1735)، وهزمهم هزيمة نكراء أكرهت تركيا على إبرام صلح نزلت بمقتضاه لفارس عن تفليس وجوندة وأروان.
لم ينس نادر أن بطرس الأكبر هاجم فارس في 1722-23، واستولى على أقاليم جيلان وأستراباد ومازندران على بحر قزوين، وعلى مدينتي دربند وباكو. وكانت روسيا قد ردت الأقاليم الثلاثة لفارس (1732) لانشغالها في جهات أخرى. فهدد نادر الآن (1735) بالتحالفمع تركيا ضد روسيا إن لم تنسحب من دربند وباكو. وعليه سلمت إليه المدينتان، ودخل نادر أصفهان دخول الفاتح الظافر الذي أعاد بناء قوة فارس. فلما مات الصبي عباس الثالث (1736) مختتماً بموت ملك الصفويين، جمع نادر بين الواقع والمظهر، وارتقى العرش باسم نادر شاه.
وكان يؤمن بأن الخلافات الدينية بين تركيا وفارس تعمل على نشوب الحروب المتكررة، لذلك أعلن أن فارس ستتخلى منذ الآن عن بدعة التشيع وترتضي السنية مذهباً لها. فلما أدان زعيم الشيعة هذه الخطوة شنقه نادر بكل هدوء مستطاع. ثم صادر أوقاف قزوين الدينية ليفي بنفقات جيشه لأن فارس على حد قوله مدينة لجيشها أكثر مما هي مدينة لدينها(22). ثم إذ شعر بالحنين إلى الحرب، فأشرك معه في الملك ابنه رضا قلي، ثم قاد جيشاً من 100.000 مقاتل ليفتح به أفغانستان والهند. وضرب الحصار عاملاً كاملاً حول قندهار. فلما استسلمت له (1738) كان كريماً رحيماً مع المدافعين عنها، حتى أن جيشاً من الأفغانيين انضوى تحت لوائه وظل وفياً له إلى يوم مماته. ثم زحف على كابول مفتاح ممر خيبر، وهناك أعانته الغنائم التي ظفر بها على رفع الروح المعنوية في جيشه. وكان محمد شاه، إمبراطور الهند المغولي، يأبى أن يصدق إمكان الغزو الفرس للهند، وكان أحد ولاته قد قتل مبعوث نادر إليه، فعبر نادر جبال الهملايا، واستولى على بشاور، وعبر السند، وزحف على دلهي حتى لم يعد بينه وبينها سوى ستين ميلاً قبل أن يهب جيشه محمد لمقاومته والتقى الجيشان الهائلان على بطاح كرنال (1739)، واعتمد الهنود على فيلتهم، أما الفرس فقد هاجموا هذه الحيوانات الصبورة بكرات النار، فانقلبت الفيلة هاربة وأشاعت الفوضى في جيش الهنود، وقتل منهم عشرة آلاف، وأسر عدد زاد على القتلى، ويروي نادر أن محمد شاه جاءه يلتمس الرأفة "أمام حضرتنا السماوية". (23) وفرض عليه القائد المنتصر تسليم دلهي وكل ثروتها القابلة للنقل تقريباً، والتي تقدر بـ 87.500.000 جنيه، بما فيها عرش الطاووس الأشهر، الذي كان قد صنع (1628-35) لشاه جيهان في أوج سطوة المغول. وقتل بعض جنود نادر في شغب أحدثه الأهالي، فانتقم بالسماح بجيشه بذبح 100.000 من الوطنيين في سبع ساعات. واعتذر عن هذه الفعلة بتزويج ابنه نصر الله من ابنة محمد. ثم زحف قافلاً إلى فارس لا يعوقه عائق بعد أن أثبت أنه أعظم الفاتحين قاطبة منذ تيمور لنك.
Nāder Shāh Afshār (Persian: نادر شاه افشار; also known as Nāder Qoli Beg - نادر قلی بیگ or Tahmāsp Qoli Khān - تهماسپ قل) (November, 1688 or August 6, 1698 – June 19, 1747) ruled as Shah of Iran (1736–47) and was the founder of the Afsharid dynasty. Because of his military genius, some historians have described him as the Napoleon of Persia[3] or the Second Alexander. Nader Shah was a member of the TurkicAfshar tribe of northern Persia, which had supplied military power to the Safavid state since the time of Shah Ismail I.
His father Emamqoli, a poor shepherd or Coat-maker (poostinduz in Persian language ), died while Nader was still a child. According to legends, Nader and his mother were carried off as slaves by marauding Uzbek or Turkmen tribesmen, but Nader managed to escape. He joined a band of brigands while still a boy and eventually became their leader. Under the patronage of Afshar chieftains, he rose through the ranks to become a powerful military figure. Nader married the two daughters of Baba Ali Beg, a local chief.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:00 PM

نظامي الكنجوي
يتمه: مات ابوه وهو صغير ورباه عمه.
مجاله: شاعر فارشي عظيم.
نظامي الكنجوي(باللغة الفارسية: نظامی گنجوی) أستاذ الشعر الفارسي المثنوي الرومانتيكي.
حياته
ولد عام 570 هـ في الكنجه في إيران القديم، تقع حاليا في أذربيجان.أمه كردية.عاش خلال فترة حكم السلاجقة. تزوج نظامي ثلاث مرات وأعقب ولداً واحداً اسمه محمد. توفي عام 614 هـ\1218 م.
مكانته
و مكانة نظامي كشاعر موهوب، يعترف بها جميع النقاد من الفرس وغيرهم علي السواء وقد اعترف له بذلك كتاب التراجم ومن بينهم عوفيوحمد الله المستوفيودولتشاه سمرقنديولطفعلي بيك وكذلك الشعراء ومن بينهم سعديوحافظوجاميوعصمت البخاري.
مؤلفاته
من أشهر مؤلفاته پنج غنج والتي تعني الكنوز الخمسة والتي تتألف من خمسة منظومات قصصية.
  1. مخزن الأسرار: هي منظومة صوفية تشتمل علي كثير من النكات والحكايات علي أسلوب حديقة الحقيقة التي ألفها سنائي أو علي أسلوب المثنوي المعنوي التي كتبه فيما بعد جلال الدين الرومي. وهي تشتمل علي كثير من المقدمات في المناجاة والحمد، يعقبها عشرون مقالة كل واحدة منها تتعلق بموضوع فقهي أو أخلاقي يتناوله الشاعر أولاً من الناحية‌النظرية والمعنوية، ثم يصوره بعد ذلك بحكاية من الحكايات.
  2. خسرو وشيرين: في هذه القصة يجري نظامي علي نسق الفردوسي من ناحية الموضوع والصياغه. وموضوع قصته يشتمل علي مخاطرات الملك الساساني كسري الثاني وغرامه مع معشوقته الجميلة شيرين، ونهاية‌ منافسه التعيس فرهاد، وقد اعتمد نظامي في هذه القصة علي المصادر التي اعتمد عليها الفردوسي من قبل أو علي مصادر أخرى شبيهة بها، ولكنه تناولها بطريقة أخرى، ابتعد فيها عن الدراسة الموضوعية، فاستطاع أن يخرجها قصة غرامية بعكس الفردوسي فإنه أخرجها قصة حماسية. وهذه المنظومة تشتمل علي ما يقرب 7000 بيت.
  3. ليلى ومجنون:و هذه القصة لا تحدث وقائها في إيران بل تقع حوادثها في بلاد العرب وهي لا تمثل شخصية ملكية، بل تمثل شخصين عاديين من عرب الصحراء إحدهما هو البطل والآخر هو الفتاة المعشوقة. ولكن نظامي استطاع أن يصبغها بالصبغة الفارسية وقد أختار لها وزن الهزج المسدس الأحزب القبوض المحذوف. وتشتمل علي أكقر من 4000 بيت.
  4. هفت پيكر (العروش السبعة): آخر المثنويات التي أنشدها نظامي ويشتمل علي أكثر من 50000 بيت من الشعر. وموضوع هذه المثنوية مشابه لموضوع خسرو وشيرين في كونه متعلقا بقصة خاصة بأحد الملوك الساسانيين وهو بهرام جور.
  5. إسكندرنامه (كتاب الإسكندر المقدوني): هذه هي المثنوية الخامسة من مثنويات نظامي وهي مكتوبة في وزن المتقارب وهو الوزن الذي كتب فيه أكثر الشعر القصصي الفارسي. وهذه المثنوية مقسمة إلي قسمين. الأول منهما يسمي إقبالنامه والثاني يسمي خردنامه.
  6. ديوان: فان للنظامي ديوان من الغزليات والموشحات والقصائد يبلغ العشرين ألف بيت وقد كتب نظامي ديوانه في سنة 584 ه.
Nezāmi-ye Ganjavi (Persian: نظامی گنجوی; Kurdish: Nîzamî Gencewî, نیزامی گه‌نجه‌وی; Azerbaijani: Nizami Gəncəvi, نظامی گنجوی ;‎ 1141 to 1209), Nizami Ganje'i,[2] Nizami,[3] or Nezāmi (Persian: نظامی), whose formal name was Niżām ad-Dīn Abū Muammad Ilyās ibn-Yūsuf ibn-Zakkī , is considered the greatest romantic epic poet in Persian literature, who brought a colloquial and realistic style to the Persian epic.His heritage is widely appreciated and shared by Afghanistan,[2]Azerbaijan, Iran,[2] and Tajikistan.
Parents

Nezami was orphaned early and was raised by his maternal uncle Khwaja Umar who took responsibility for him and afforded him an excellent education.
His mother, named Ra'isa, was of a Kurdish background. His father, whose name was Yusuf is mentioned once by Nezami in his poetry. In the same verse, Nezami mentions his grandfather's name as Zakki. In part of the same verse, some have taken the word Mu'ayyad as a title for Zakki while others have interpreted it as the name of his great grandfather. Some sources have stated that his father might be possibly from Qom.
Nezami was at least half Iranian, but there exists a difference of opinion, about his father's ethnicity and Iranic and others have been mentioned.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:01 PM

نيقولا الاول

يتمه:فقد الاب في سن الـ 4-


مجاله: قائد.


نقولا الأول Nicholas I الولد الثالث للقيصر الروسي «باڤل الثالث» Pavel III. اقتصر تعليمه على العلوم العسكرية. تزوّج عام 1817م من الأميرة البروسية شارلوت، التي عرفت فيما بعد أليكسندرا فيودوروڤنا Alexandra Fydorovna، وأنجب منها عدة أبناء. كان ضابطاً في الجيش وقائداً لفرقة الحرس فمراقباً لقسم الهندسة قبل وصوله إلى العرش. لم يكن «نقولا الأوّل» راغباً في استلام السلطة بعد وفاة والده، لكن موت أخيه الكبير «ألكسندر الأوّل» Alexander I المفاجئ، ونزول أخيه الثاني الوريث قسطنطين له عن العرش، وإصرار والدته عليه، إضافةً إلى ثورة الديسمبريين (نسبةً إلى كانون الأوّل/ديسمبر) ذوي الميول الإصلاحية، بتشجيع من اليهود، من أجل الاستيلاء على السلطة، كل هذه العوامل مجتمعة أجبرته على تولي العرش في 14/12/1825م، ليصبح قيصراً على روسيا في الفترة مابين 1825- 1855م. وقد استهلّ عمله بالقضاء على الثورة، وإعدام خمسة من قادتها، ونفي الآخرين إلى سيبيريا، أو إيداعهم السجن.
نمّى نقولا الأوّل الجيش حتى استهلك نحو 40% من الموازنة، وأقام نظام الثكنات والتدريب العسكري، وأعطى عدداً قليلاً من معاونيه سلطات واسعة، وحاول إدارة روسيا كما لو كانت وحدة عسكرية. وعلى الرغم من أنّ حرية الفكر كانت منتشرة واسعاً، فقد عمل منذ عام 1826م على تأسيس «الفرع الثالث» الخاص بمكتب القيصر من أجل القضاء على الحركة الثورية، والمعارضة الجماهيرية، وملاحقة الأفكار التقدمية المتزايدة للمثقفين. وأنشأ شرطة سريّة لمنع أي نشاط معادٍ للحكومة. وعزّز الجهاز العسكري البيروقراطي، وركّز السلطات في يده، ووضع الصحف تحت الرقابة، واضطهد الكتّاب الروس، وسيطر على الجامعات، وطالب الجميع بالولاء للقيصر والكنيسة الأرثوذوكسية الشرقية والأمة الروسية. فعرف بحكمه القاسي، وتميّز عهده بالتنكيل الدموي للحركات المطالبة بالحرية، وحركات الاستقلال في المناطق البعيدة، ومطاردة اليهود، فكانت ضحايا حكمه الاستبدادي كثيرة، وحَكَمَ على كثير منهم بالنفي والأعمال الشاقة. وفي عهده تفاقمت أزمة نظام الرق الإقطاعي؛ لكنه بالمقابل أدخل العديد من الإصلاحات والتنظيمات الاجتماعية والاقتصادية. ففي عهده صدرت أوّل مجموعة قانونية روسية حديثة عام 1835م، وتمّت الموافقة على تحسين مستوى حياة الفلاحين العاملين في أراضي الدولة، مع الإشارة إلى واجباتهم، وعمل على إصلاح إدارة الدولة، ومع أنه كان حريصاً على عدم مسِّ مصالح طبقة النبلاء (الأشراف) بأذى، لا بل كان اتجاهه الأساسي في إدارة الحكم هو حرصه على ترسيخ دولة النبلاء الإقطاعيين، فإن تطور النظام الرأسمالي وضغط البرجوازية الناشئة، دفعته إلى التساهل والنزول عن كثير لمصلحة طبقة الصنّاع والتجّار (البرجوازية)، ففي سنة 1828م أنشأ مجلس مصانع النسيج، وافتتح معهداً تقنياً لتجهيز فنيين مختصين، نظموا فيما بعد معارض صناعية، ووافق على بناء سكة حديد روسيا. أما سياسة روسيا الخارجية في عهده فإنها ركزت على ثلاثة محاور: محاربة الدولة العثمانية، وقمع الحركات الثورية في أوربا، وتوسيع الإمبراطورية الروسية. وقد خاضت روسيا في عهده عدة حروب ضد الدولة العثمانية، أوّلها: بين عامي 1828- 1829م. وثانيتها: حرب القرم بين عامي 1853- 1856م. وفي كلتا الحربين تدخلت الدول الغربية وخاصة بريطانيا وفرنسا إلى جانب الأتراك لمنع روسيا من القضاء على الدولة العثمانية، وعدم السماح لها بالوصول إلى البحر المتوسط وتهديد مصالحهم. وفوق هذا كانت روسيا تدعم وتساند حركات التحرر الوطني في البلقان ضد السلطنة العثمانية.
كان القيصر نقولا الأوّل يخاف من تسرّب أي أفكار تقدميّة إلى روسيا، ومن هنا كان تخوّفه من الثورة الفرنسية والثورة البولونية عام 1830- 1831م الهادفة إلى التحرّر والاستقلال، وخاصةً أنّ بولندا كانت وقتذاك جزءاً من الامبراطورية الروسية, فكانت ردّة فعل القيصر قوية، حيث عمل على سحقها بقسوة بالغة. ولأنّه كان يحاول قمع الحركات الثورية وخنقها في أوربا انضمّ عام 1833م إلى تحالف مع ملوك بروسيا والنمسا، وقطع العلاقات مع جمهورية فرنسا عام 1848م، وشارك جيشه في هزيمة الثورة في هنغاريا (المجر) عام 1849م وفي آسيا وجنوب شرقي أوربا، ووسّع امبراطوريته في الشرق الأقصى ووسط آسيا وكازاخستان تحت ذريعة البحث عن أسواق لتصريف الناتج الصناعي، وقد توفى نقولا الأول بعد اشتعال حرب القرم بسنتين قبل أن تحسم نتيجتها لمصلحة الدولة العثمانية عام 1856.

غطاس نعمة


Nicholas I

1825-1855

Nicholas was the son of the Grand Duke Paul and Grand Duchess Maria. His father Paul showed him kindness and consideration, and he loved and cherished him. Nicholas was not very close with his older brothers, Alexander I, and Constantine; although he was intimate with his younger siblings, Michael and Anne.
Paul was killed during the Revolution of 1801, which made Alexander emperor when Nicholas wasn't even five years old. Maria remained formal and cold on her relationship to the children and kept with her general character.
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ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:02 PM

سين أوكاسي

يتمه: توفي والده وعمره ست سنوات.
مجاله: كاتب مسرحي.
Seán O'Casey

(Irish: Seán Ó Cathasaigh; born John Casey, 30 March 1880, Dublin, Ireland, died 18 September 1964, Torquay, England) was an Irish dramatist and memoirist. A committed socialist, he was the first Irish playwright of note to write about the Dublin working classes

Early life

O'Casey was born on March 30, 1880, John Casey or John Cassidy to Michael and Susan Archer Casey in a house at 85 Upper Dorset Street, in the northern inner-city area of Dublin. It is commonly thought that he grew up in the working class society in which many of his plays are set. In fact, his family were considered as "shabby genteel". He was a member of the Church of Ireland, baptised on July 28, 1880 in St. Mary's parish, confirmed at St John the Baptist Church in Clontarf, and an active member of Saint Barnabas until his mid-twenties, when he drifted away from the church.
O'Casey's father died when Seán was just six years of age, leaving a family of thirteen. The family lived a peripatetic life thereafter, moving from house to house around north Dublin. As a child, he suffered from poor eyesight, which interfered somewhat with his early education, but O'Casey taught himself to read and write by the age of thirteen.
He left school at fourteen and worked at a variety of jobs, including a nine-year period as a railwayman. O'Casey worked in Easons for a short while, in the newspaper distribution business, but was sacked for not taking off his cap when collecting his wage packet.
From the early 1890s, O'Casey and his older brother, Archie, put on performances of plays by Dion Boucicault and William Shakespeare in the family home. He also got a small part in Boucicault's The Shaughraun in the Mechanics' Theatre, which stood on what was to be the site of the Abbey Theatre.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:03 PM

جون هنري اوهيرا

يتمه: مات ابوه عندما كان في سن الـ 19.
مجاله: اديب امريكي.

John Henry O'Hara (January 31, 1905 – April 11, 1970) was an Americanwriter. He initially became known for his short stories and later became a best-selling novelist whose works include Appointment in Samarra and BUtterfield 8. He was particularly known for an uncannily accurate ear for dialogue. O'Hara was a keen observer of social status and class differences, and wrote frequently about the socially ambitious.
A controversial figure, O'Hara had a reputation for personal irascibility and for cataloging social ephemera, both of which frequently overshadowed his gifts as a storyteller. Writer Fran Lebowitz called him "the real F. Scott Fitzgerald." John Updike, one of his consistent supporters, grouped him with Chekhov in a C-SPAN interview. By contrast, Michiko Kakutani of the New York Times dismissed him as "a well-known lout
O'Hara was born in Pottsville, Pennsylvania. His father died when O'Hara was 19, leaving him unable to afford Yale, the college of his choice. He did attend Niagara University in Lewiston, New York. By all accounts, this disappointment affected O'Hara deeply for the rest of his life and served to hone the keen sense of social awareness that characterizes his work.
He worked as a reporter for various newspapers before moving to New York City, where he began to write short stories for magazines. In his early days he was also a film critic, a radio commentator and a press agent; later, with his reputation established, he became a newspaper columnist. While still living in Pottsville, O'Hara covered his hometown Pottsville Maroons of the National Football League for the local newspaper. O'Hara received much critical acclaim for his short stories, more than 200 of which, beginning in 1928, appeared in The New Yorker. Many of these stories (and his later novels) were set in Gibbsville, Pennsylvania, a barely fictionalized version of Pottsville, a small city in the coal region of the United States.
In 1934, O'Hara published his first novel, Appointment in Samarra, which was acclaimed on publication. This is the O'Hara novel that is most consistently praised by critics. Ernest Hemingway wrote: "If you want to read a book by a man who knows exactly what he is writing about and has written it marvelously well, read Appointment in Samarra." On the other hand, writing in the Atlantic Monthly in March, 2000, critic Benjamin Schwarz and writer Christina Schwarz claimed: "So widespread is the literary world's scorn for John O'Hara that the inclusion... of Appointment in Samarra on the Modern Library's list of the 100 best [English-language] novels of the twentieth century was used to ridicule the entire project."
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Bibliography
Novels
Appointment in Samarra (1934)
BUtterfield 8 (1935)
Hope of Heaven (1938)
Pal Joey (1940)
A Rage to Live (1949)
The Farmers Hotel (1951)
Ten North Frederick (1955)
A Family Party (1956)
From the Terrace (1958)
Ourselves to Know (1960)
The Big Laugh (1962)
Elizabeth Appleton (1963)
The Lockwood Concern (1965)
The Instrument (1967)
Lovey Childs: A Philadelphian's Story (1969)
The Ewings (1970)
The Second Ewings (1972)
Short story collections
The Doctor’s Son and Other Stories (1935)
Files on Parade 1939)
Pipe Night (1945)
Hellbox (1947)
Sermons and Soda Water: A Trilogy of Three Novellas (1960)
Assembly (1961)
The Cape Cod Lighter (1962)
The Hat on the Bed (1963)
The Horse Knows the Way (1964)
Waiting for Winter (1966)
And Other Stories 1968)
The Time Element and Other Stories (1972)
Good Samaritan and Other Stories (1974)
Screenplays
He Married His Wife (1940)
Moontide (1942)
Plays
Five Plays (1961)
(The Farmers Hotel, The Searching Sun, The Champagne Pool, Veronique, The Way It Was)
Two by O'Hara (1979)
(The Man Who Could Not Lose [screen treatement] and Far from Heaven [play])

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:03 PM

رضا شاه بهلوي

يتمه: مات ابوه وهو في سن الـ 1.
مجاله: قائد ...مؤسس الدولة البهلويه.


(بالفارسية: رضا شاه پهلوی) (1878-1944), مؤسس الدولة البهلوية، حكم ما بين أعوام 1925و1941، خلفه ابنه محمد رضا بعد أن أجبره غزو بريطاني- سوفييتي مزدوج على التنحي.
عمل رضا شاه في بدايته بالجيش الإيراني ثم أصبح قائدا للواء القوزاق في عهد الدولة القاجارية. قام سنة 1921 م وهو على رأس وزارة الحربية (الدفاع) بحل الحكومة.
تولى ما بين سنوات 1923-1925 م منصب رئيس الوزراء. بعد أن قام بخلع آخر الشاهات القاجاريين سنة 1925 م، ثم أجبر البرلمان (المجلس الوطني) على أن ينتخبه شاهاً على البلاد.
كان رضا خان يتمتع بدعم قوي وسط قيادات الجيش، الشيء الذي مكنه من أن يقوم بعملية إصلاحات على الطريقة الكمالية (في تركيا) رغم المعارضة الشعبية. تميز حكمه بالشمولية (الدكتاتورية). كان في صراع دائم مع المرجعيات الشيعية (رجال الدين). قام سنة 1934 م باستبدال اسم البلاد القديم "فارس" بـ"إيران" أي بلاد الآريين بعد أن قام بضم كل الأقاليم التي كانت تتمتع بحكم ذاتي مثل عربستان بلوشستان لرستان إلى الدولة الإيرانية الجديدة أبدى رضا خان تعاطفاً مع الرئيس الألماني أدولف هتلر أثناء الحرب العالمية الثانية، تسبب موقفه في تدخل القوات البريطانية والسوفياتية وغزو إيران ثم عزلوه سنة 1941 م ثم نفي إلى جنوب إفريقيا.
حكم ابنه محمد رضا بهلوي (1919-1980 م) تحت الوصاية البريطانية والروسية حتى سنة 1946 م. قام بالتقرب من الولايات المتحدة في سياسته الخارجية ومن الغرب بشكل عام. بعد حصول نزاع بينه وبين رئيس وزراءه مصدق (والذي كان يحظى بشعبية كبيرة)، اضطر الشاه رضا إلى المنفى الإجباري سنة 1953 م. إلا أن الأمر لم يدم طويلا، تدخلت القوات الأمريكية ومعها الاستخبارات المحلية (السافاك)، قام هؤلاء بدحر كل قوى المعارضة الشعبية. قام رضا بهلوي باتخاذ إجراءات لعصرنه المجتمع والبلاد على الطريقة الغربية (منذ 1964 وسميت بالثورة البيضاء)، كما قام بانجاز العديد من المشاريع الكبرى. تم اتخاذ أكثر هذه التدابير في شكل إجباري وتعسفي. أدى هذا إلى توحيد قوى المعارضة (الشيوعيين ورجال الدين الشيعة) في وجه نظام الشاه. سنة 1979 أجبر الشاه على ترك البلاد بعد قيام ثورة شعبية في البلاد.
Reza was born in the village of Alasht in Savadkuh County, Māzandarān Province, in 1878.
His father Major Abbas Ali Khan (Dadash Beg) was born c. 1815, became commissioned in the 7th Savadkuh Regiment, and served in the Anglo-Persian War in 1856. He married more than once and his fifth marriage was in 1877, to Noush-Afarin Ayromlou (c. 1836 – Teheran, 1884). She was a second or third cousin of the notable Sar-Lashkar Muhammad-Hussein Ayrom's father. The Ayrums were a prominent family from Nakhchivan in Erivan Governorate of the Russian Empire who arrived in Iran in the late Eighteenth century. Upon arriving in Iran, they brought with them their strong military and political background into Iran. They once ruled the Caucasus from north to south, and despite coming from a higher-class family did not take pride in their wealth unlike most monarchs before them. One of their greatest leaders, Budogh-Sultan Ayromlou, was known for his strangely simple lifestyle.
Reza's father died suddenly at Alasht on 26 November 1878, having had 10 children, of whom six sons and three daughters survived infancy. Upon Abbas Ali Khan's death, Reza's mother moved with Reza to her brother's house in Tehran. She remarried in 1879 and left Reza to the care of his uncle, who, in turn, sent Reza away to his friend Amir Tuman Kazim Khan, an army officer.
When Reza was sixteen years old, he joined the Persian Cossack Brigade, in which, years later, he would rise to the rank of Brigadier. In 1903 he is reported to have been guard and servant to the Dutch consul general Frits Knobel. A picture of him in Cossack uniform standing next to the mounted Dutch consul-general was published in De Hollandsche Revue. In 1925 Maurits Wagenvoort, a friend of Knobel, wrote: "was the present autocrat the same person as the one I once spoke to in the Babi-circle of Hadsji Achont when he was gholam of his Respected Presence the Netherlands' ambassador in Tehran?" He appeared to me most eager to learn about the Western political situation. And I shall never forget the expression of disillusion on his face when, in answer to his question, 'What? Aren't the elected people's representatives the most intelligent men of the nation?' I replied, 'Not a bit of it! Perhaps they are just a trifle above your average, everyday folk'. He continued, 'And the ministers then?' 'They are somewhat brighter. But not always.'[9] He also served in the Iranian Army, where he gained the rank of gunnery sergeant under Qajar Prince Abdol Hossein Mirza Farmanfarma's command. He rose through the ranks, eventually holding a commission as a Brigadier General in the Persian Cossack Brigade. He was the last, and only Iranian, commander of the Persian Cossack Brigade. He was also one of the last individuals to become an officer of the Neshan-e Aqdas prior to the collapse of the Qajar dynasty in 1925.[10]

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:03 PM


دورثي باركر

يتمها: ماتت امها وهي في سن 4 .
مجالها: شاعره امريكية.
Dorothy Parker
(August 22, 1893 – June 7, 1967) was an Americanpoet and satirist, best known for her wit, wisecracks, and eye for 20th century urban foibles.
From a conflicted and unhappy childhood, Parker rose to acclaim, both for her literary output in such venues as The New Yorker and as a founding member of the Algonquin Round Table. Following the breakup of the circle, Parker traveled to Hollywood to pursue screenwriting. Her successes there, including two Academy Award nominations, were curtailed as her involvement in left-wing politics led to a place on the infamous Hollywood blacklist.
Parker went through three marriages (two to the same man) and survived several suicide attempts, but grew increasingly dependent on alcohol. Dismissive of her own talents, she deplored her reputation as a "wisecracker." Nevertheless, her literary output and reputation for her sharp wit have endured.
Also known as Dot or Dottie, Parker was born Dorothy Rothschild to Jacob Henry and Eliza Annie Rothschild (née Marston). at 732 Ocean Avenue in the West End village of Long Branch, New Jersey, where her parents had a summer beach cottage.
Dorothy's mother was of Scottish descent, and her father was of German-Jewish descent (unrelated, however, to the Rothschild banking dynasty). Parker wrote in her essay "My Hometown" that her parents got her back to their Manhattan apartment shortly after Labor Day so she could be called a true New Yorker.
Her mother died in West End in July 1898, when Parker was a month shy of turning five. Her father remarried in 1900 to a woman named Eleanor Francis Lewis. Parker detested her father and stepmother, accusing her father of being physically abusive and refusing to call Eleanor either "mother" or "stepmother," instead referring to her as "the housekeeper." She grew up on the Upper West Side and attended Roman Catholic elementary school at the Convent of the Blessed Sacrament, despite having a Jewish father and Protestant stepmother. She was asked to leave following her characterization of Christ's conception as "spontaneous combustion". Her stepmother died in 1903, when Parker was nine. Parker later went to Miss Dana's School, a finishing school in Morristown, New Jersey. Her formal education ended when she was 13. Following her father's death in 1913, she played piano at a dancing school to earn a living. while she worked on her verse.
She sold her first poem to Vanity Fair magazine in 1914 and, some months later, she was hired as an editorial assistant for another Condé Nast magazine, Vogue. She moved to Vanity Fair as a staff writer following two years at Vogue.[12]
In 1917, she met and married a Wall Streetstock broker, Edwin Pond Parker II[13] (March 28, 1893 in Hartford, Connecticut – January 7, 1933 in Hartford, Connecticut[14]), but they were separated by his army service in World War I. She had ambivalent feelings about her Jewish heritage given the strong antisemitism of that era and joked that she married to escape her name

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:04 PM

ثيدور باركر
يتمه: فقد معظم افراد عائلته – وفقد الام وهو في سن 12
مجاله: اديب ورجل دين.

Theodore Parker (August 24, 1810-May 10, 1860) was a preacher, lecturer, and writer, a public intellectual, and a religious and social reformer. He played a major role in moving Unitarianism away from being a Bible-based faith, and he established a precedent for clerical activism that has inspired generations of liberal religious leaders. Although ranked with William Ellery Channing as the most important and influential Unitarian minister of the nineteenth century, he was an extremely controversial figure in his own day and his legacy to Unitarian Universalism remains contested.
Parker was born 24 August 1810 in Lexington, Massachusetts, the youngest child of a large farming family. Growing up, he attended the Lexington church. It had a long history of tolerant Calvinism and quietly became Unitarian when he was a boy. He admired the fervor of the evangelicals, however, and as a young man considered converting to Calvinist Orthodoxy.
His religious sensibility developed partly in response to domestic tragedy. By age 27 he had lost most of his family--his parents and seven of nine siblings--mostly to tuberculosis; his mother had died of the disease when he was 12. In the face of these disasters, Parker developed a strong faith in the immortality of the soul and in a God who would allow no lasting harm to come to any of His children. His firm belief in the benevolence of God led him to reject Calvinist theology as cruel and unreasonable

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:04 PM

قبلاي خان
يتمه: فقد الاب وعمره 17 سنه.
مجاله: قائد مغولي.

Kublai (or Khubilai) Khan (Mongolian: Хубилай хаан; Chinese: pinyin: Hūbìliè) (September 23, 1215 – February 18, 1294 was the fifth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from 1260 to 1294 and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in East Asia. As the second son of Tolui and Sorghaghtani Beki and a grandson of Genghis Khan, he claimed the title of Khagan of the Ikh Mongol Uls (Mongol Empire) in 1260 after the death of his older brother Möngke in the previous year, though his younger brother Ariq Böke was also given this title in the Mongolian capital at Karakorum. He eventually won the battle against Ariq Böke in 1264, and the succession war essentially marked the beginning of disunity in the empire. Kublai's real power was limited to China and Mongolia after the victory over Ariq Böke, though his influence still remained in the Ilkhanate, and to a lesser degree, in the Golden Horde, in the western parts of the Mongol Empire. His realm reached from the Pacific to the Urals, from Siberia to modern day Afghanistan – one fifth of the world's inhabited land area.
In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan Dynasty, which at that time ruled over present-day Mongolia and China, and some adjacent areas, and assumed the role of Emperor of China. By 1279, the Yuan forces had successfully annihilated the last resistance of the Southern Song Dynasty, and Kublai thus became the first non-Chinese Emperor who conquered all China. He was the only Mongol khan after 1260 to win new great conquests.
Kublai (b. 23 Sep. 1215) was the fifth son of Tolui and Sorghaghtani Beki. As his grandfather Genghis Khan advised, Sorghaghtani chose as her son's nurse a BuddhistTangut woman whom Kublai later honored highly.
On his way back home after the conquest of Khwarizmian Empire, Genghis Khan performed the ceremony on his grandsons Mongke and Kublai after their first hunting in 1224 near the Ili River. Kublai was nine years old and with his eldest brother killed a rabbit and an antelope. His grandfather smeared fat from killed animals onto Kublai's middle finger following the Mongol tradition.
After the Mongol-Jin War, in 1236, Ogedei gave Hebei Province (attached with 80,000 households) to the family of Tolui who died in 1232. Kublai received an estate of his own and 10,000 households there. Because he was inexperienced, Kublai allowed local officials free rein. Corruption amongst his officials and aggressive taxation caused the flight of large numbers of Chinese peasants, which in turn led to a decline in tax revenues. Kublai quickly came to his appanage in Hebei and ordered reforms. Sorghaghtani sent new officials to help him and tax laws were revised. Thanks to those efforts, people returned to their old towers.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:05 PM

ماركو بولو


يتمه: ماتت امه معمره 6 سنوات
مجاله: مستكشف.
(بالإيطالية: Marco Polo)، ولد في 15 سبتمبر1254 م في البندقية، إيطاليا وتوفي في 8 يناير1324م في البندقية) هو تاجر ومستكشف من البندقية كان هو وأبوه نيكولو وعمه مافيو أول الغربيين الذين سلكوا طريق الحرير إلى الصين -والتي أطلق عليها اسم كاثاي- وكانت له علاقات ديبلوماسية مع قوبلاي خان أكبر ملوك إمبرطورية المغول وحفيد جنكيز خان. وقد دون رحلاته في كتابه إل ميليوني -وهو تصغير إيميليوني، اسم الشهرة لعائلة بولو- والذي يدعى أيضا رحلات ماركو بولو

من الطفولة وحتى الاسر جنوة

لا يعرف وجه التحديد المكان والزمان اللذان ولد فيهما ماركو بولو، وأغلب النظريات الحالية هي تخمينيات. ومع ذلك، فإن التاريخ الأقرب لولادته هو "1254"، وكان من المقبول عموما أن ماركو بولو ولد في جمهورية البندقية. بينما مهد غير معروف بالضبط، فإن معظم كتاب السير الذاتية نقطة صوب البندقية نفسها ماركو بولو في المدينة التي يقيم فيها. وكان والده نيكولو كان التاجر الذي يتاجر مع الشرق الأوسط، وأصبحت الدول الغنية وتحقيق المكانة العظيمة. نيكولو وشقيقه مافيو انطلق في رحلة تجارية، وذلك قبل ماركو ولد. [3])، وفي سنة 1260، نيكولو ومافيو كانوا يقيمون في القسطنطينية عندما توقع حدوث تغيير سياسي ؛ قاموا بتصفية أصولها إلى المجوهرات وابتعدت. ووفقا لرحلات ماركو بولو، مروا من خلال جزء كبير من آسيا، واجتمع مع قوبلاي خان. وفي الوقت نفسه، وماركو بولو وتوفيت أمه، وقال انه أثيرت من قبل العم والعمة. بولو كان جيدا المتعلمين، وتعلمت المواضيع بما في ذلك تاجر العملة الاجنبية، مثمنا، ومناولة سفن الشحن ،على الرغم من انه تعلم القليل أو لا اللاتينية.
في 1269، عاد نيكولو ومافيو في البندقية، وماركو الاجتماع للمرة الأولى. في 1271، ماركو بولو (في السابعة عشرة من العمر)، والده وعمه وانطلق لآسيا على سلسلة من المغامرات التي كانت في وقت لاحق موثقة في كتاب ماركو. عادوا إلى مدينة البندقية في 1295، بعد مرور 24 عاما، مع العديد من الثروات والكنوز. كانوا قد سافروا ما يقرب من 15،000 ميل (24٬140 كم) [3]. عند عودتهم، والبندقية كانت في حالة حرب مع جنوى، وماركو بولو قد اسروا. أمضى بضعة أشهر في السجن يملي له وصفا مفصلا للأسفاره لسجين زميل، Rustichello دا بيزا، [3]) الذي أدرج حكايات من بلده، وكذلك جمع الحكايات وغيرها من الشؤون الجارية من الصين. الكتاب أصبح يعرف باسم ورحلات ماركو بولو، ويصور الكرة والصولجان 'الرحلات في مختلف أنحاء آسيا، وإعطاء الأوروبيين أول نظرة شاملة في الأعمال الداخلية لدول الشرق الأقصى، بما في ذلك الصين والهند، واليابان. [5]) ماركو بولو في نهاية المطاف أطلق سراحهم من الاسر في آب / أغسطس 1299، [3])، وعاد إلى البندقية، حيث كان والده وعمه قد اشترى منزلا كبيرا في الربع المركزي المسمى contrada سان جيوفاني كريسوستومو. الشركة واصلت أنشطتها وماركو سرعان ما أصبح التاجر الثري. البولو الممولة من البعثات الأخرى، لكنه لم يغادر البندقية مرة أخرى. في 1300، تزوج من دوناتا بادوير، ابنة فيتالي بادوير، وهو تاجر. [6] وكانوا قد بناته الثلاث، ودعا Fantina، Bellela وMoreta. [7] ايل Milione ترجم، تزينها، نسخها من قبل جهة وتكييفها ؛ هناك لم إصدار موثوقة. انها وثائق والده في رحلة لتلبية قوبلاي خان، الذين طلب منهم أن يصبحوا سفراء، والتواصل مع البابا. هذا أدى إلى ماركو سعي، من خلال عكا، إلى الصين والى المحكمة المغول. وكتب ماركو أسفاره واسعة النطاق في مختلف أنحاء آسيا نيابة عن خان، وعودتهم في نهاية المطاف بعد 15،000 ميل (24140 كم) و 24 عاما من المغامرات. رحلتهم رائدة من وحي كولومبوس وغيرها. ماركو بولو وغيرها من الموروثات تشمل البندقية مطار ماركو بولو، ماركو بولو الأغنام، والعديد من الكتب والأفلام. كما أنه كان لها تأثير على الخرائط الأوروبية، مما أدى إلى إدخال الفرنسي ماورو الخريطة.
From childhood through to Genoese captivity


See also: Niccolò and Maffeo Polo and Battle of Curzola
The exact time and place of Marco Polo's birth are unknown, and current theories are mostly conjectural. One possible place of birth is Venice's former contrada of San Giovanni Crisostomo, which is sometimes presented by historians as the birthplace, and it is generally accepted that Marco Polo was born in the Venetian Republic with most biographers pointing towards Venice itself as Marco Polo's home town. Some biographers suggest that Polo was born in the town of Korčula (Curzola), on the island of Korčula in today's Croatia The most quoted specific date of Polo's birth is somewhere "around 1254". His father Niccolò was a merchant who traded with the Middle East, becoming wealthy and achieving great prestige.[Niccolò and his brother Maffeo set off on a trading voyage, before Marco was born.[
In 1260, Niccolò and Maffeo were residing in Constantinople when they foresaw a political change; they liquidated their assets into jewels and moved away. According to The Travels of Marco Polo, they passed through much of Asia, and met with the Kublai Khan. Meanwhile, Marco Polo's mother died, and he was raised by an aunt and uncle. Polo was well educated, and learned merchant subjects including foreign currency, appraising, and the handling of cargo ships,[6] although he learned little or no Latin.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:06 PM

جياكومو بوتشيني

يتمه: مات ابوه وعمره خمس سنوات.
مجاله : ملف اوبرا.

ويُعتبر المؤلف الإيطالي جياكومو بوتشيني (1858-1924) واحداً من أهم مؤلفي الأوبرا، حيث تَشغل أوبراته الحيز الأكبر في برامج دور الأوبرا العالمية، وتتميز موسيقاه بالقوة اللحنية العذبة.

ويُعرف عن بوتشيني توزيعه الأوركسترالي المتين والملوّن، إذ لم تقتصر موسيقاه على النصوص ذات الفكر الأوروبي، وإنما ذهب إلى الشرق مثل أوبرا «Madama Butterfly» التي تدور أحداثها في اليابان، وإلى الغرب مثل أوبرا «La fanciulla del West» التي تدور أحداثها في أميركا.

ألّف بوتشيني عشر أوبرات، وأتمَّ الأخيرة «Turandot» المؤلف فرانكو ألفانو بسبب موته، لكن بعض أوبراته لم تلقَ الشعبية الكبيرة المرجوة في بداياتها، ولكن هذه الشعبية بدأت بالتنامي شيئاً فشيئاً، وهذا ما دفع النقاد إلى القول بأن بوتشيني هو أحد العباقرة الذين سبقوا عصرهم. وكان تصريحه الأخير وهو على فراش الموت «إن لم تؤمن بنفسك! فلن يؤمن بك أحد».

وسبِق للأمانة العامة لاحتفالية دمشق عاصمة الثقافة العربية 2008 تقديم مجموعة من الحفلات الموسيقية، التي تساهم بشكل أو بآخر بإتاحة الفرصة أمام جمهور المستمعين، بمتابعة ألوان مختلفة من الموسيقى التي تنتمي لمختلف أنحاء العالم.

بوتشيني، جياكومو (1858 – 1924م). مؤلف الأوبرا الإيطالي الذي يعد من أشهر مؤلفي الأوبرا على الإطلاق، مثله مثل فولفغانغ أماديوس موزارت، وريتشارد شتراوس، وجوزيبي فيردي، وريتشارد فاجنر. ويمكن الاستماع لألحان أوبرا بوتشيني مثل البوهيمي (1896م)؛ توسكا (1900م)؛ مدام باترفلاي (1904م)؛ ابنة جولدن وست (1910م)؛ التوراندوت التي عرضت لأول مرة عام 1926م بعد وفاة بوتشيني. وقد قدمت دور الأوبرا تريتيكو عام 1918م وهي محصلة لثلاث مسرحيات في عرض واحد هي نيتارو وسور أنجليليكا وجياني شيكخي.
وُلد بوتشيني في لوكا، وهو من الجيل الرابع لأسرة الموسيقيين المحترفين. وبعد دراسته للموسيقى، أصبح عازف الكنيسة، وحصل على منحة من الملكة مارجريت. التحق بعدها بمعهد الفنون المسرحية بميلانو عام 1880م. شارك بوتشيني في مسابقة بأولى مسرحياته المدينة، وهي مسرحية من فصل واحد لكنها لم تحقق له النجاح. ومع ذلك فإن هذه المسرحية ذاتها، عندما قدمت مرة أخرى لجمهور ميلانو عام 1884م، لاقت نجاحًا. أما مسرحيته الثانية إدجار عام 1889م، فقد حققت نجاحاً أفضل قليلاً.
وبعد النجاح الذي لقيته مسرحيته مانون لسكوات عام 1893م، بدأ بوتشيني يحتل مكانته خلفًا منتظرًا لكبير الموسيقيين فيردي. وقد نالت جميع مسرحياته التالية شهرة عالمية لبراعتها في الأداء المسرحي وعذوبة ألحانها العاطفية وما تميزت به من روعة في التوزيع الموسيقي مع العناية بأدق التفاصيل.
وبعد عام 1893، ألف بوتشيني الكوميديا الموسيقية الرونداين عام 1917م فقط، والتي لم يتحقق لها الانتشار الجماهيري. وقد وافته المنية في بروكسل ببلجيكا قبل أن يكمل مسرحيته توراندوت، التي استكملها الموسيقي الإيطالي فرانكو ألفانو.
Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini (Italian pronunciation: [ˈdʒaːkomo putˈtʃiːni]; 22 December 1858 – 29 November 1924) was an Italian composer whose operas, including La bohème, Tosca, Madama Butterfly, and Turandot, are among the most frequently performed in the standard repertoire.[1][2] Some of his arias, such as "O mio babbino caro" from Gianni Schicchi, "Che gelida manina" from La bohème, and "Nessun dorma" from Turandot, have become part of popular culture.
Puccini was born in Lucca in Tuscany, into a family with five generations of musical history behind them, including composer Domenico Puccini.
His father died when Giacomo was five years old, and he was sent to study with his uncle Fortunato Magi, who considered him to be a poor and undisciplined student. Magi may have been prejudiced against his nephew because his contract as choir master stipulated that he would hand over the position to Puccini "as soon as the said Signore Giacomo be old enough to discharge such duties." Puccini took the position of church organist and choir master in Lucca, but it was not until he saw a performance of Verdi's Aida that he became inspired to be an opera composer. He and his brother, Michele, walked 18.5 mi (30 km) to see the performance in Pisa.
In 1880, with the help of a relative and a grant, Puccini enrolled in the Milan Conservatory to study composition with Stefano Ronchetti-Monteviti, Amilcare Ponchielli, and Antonio Bazzini. In the same year, at the age of 21, he composed the Messa, which marks the culmination of his family's long association with church music in his native Lucca. Although Puccini himself correctly titled the work a Messa, referring to a setting of the Ordinary of the Catholic Mass, today the work is popularly known as his Messa di Gloria, a name that technically refers to a setting of only the first two prayers of the Ordinary, the Kyrie and the Gloria, while omitting the Credo, the Sanctus, and the Agnus Dei.
The work anticipates Puccini's career as an operatic composer by offering glimpses of the dramatic power that he would soon bring forth onto the stage; the powerful "arias" for tenor and bass soloists are certainly more operatic than is usual in church music and, in its orchestration and dramatic power, the Messa compares interestingly with Verdi's Requiem.
While studying at the Conservatory, Puccini obtained a libretto from Ferdinando Fontana and entered a competition for a one-act opera in 1882. Although he did not win, Le Villi was later staged in 1884 at the Teatro Dal Verme and it caught the attention of Giulio Ricordi, head of G. Ricordi & Co. music publishers, who commissioned a second opera, Edgar, in 1889. Edgar failed: it was a bad story and Fontana's libretto was poor. This may have had an effect on Puccini's thinking because when he began his next opera, Manon Lescaut, he announced that he would write his own libretto so that "no fool of a librettist"[3] could spoil it. Ricordi persuaded him to accept Leoncavallo as his librettist, but Puccini soon asked Ricordi to remove him from the project. Four other librettists were then involved with the opera, due mainly to Puccini constantly changing his mind about the structure of the piece. It was almost by accident that the final two, Illica and Giacosa, came together to complete the opera. They remained with Puccini for his next three operas and probably his greatest successes: La Boheme, Tosca and Madama Butterfly.
It may well have been the failure of Edgar that made Puccini so apt to change his mind. Edgar nearly cost him his career. Puccini had eloped with the married Elvira Gemignani and Ricordi's associates were willing to turn a blind eye to his life style as long as he was successful. When Edgar failed, they suggested to Ricordi that he should drop Puccini, but Ricordi said that he would stay with him and made him an allowance from his own pocket until his next opera. Manon Lescaut was a great success and Puccini went on to become the leading operatic composer of his day.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:06 PM

سيف الدين قلاوون
السلطان المملوكي

يتمه : مملوك.
مجاله : قائد عظيم.

الخميس6 من ذو القعدة1428هـ 15-11-2007م6 من ذي القعدة 689هـ ـ 11 نوفمبر 1290م - المصدر مفكرة الإسلام:

سابع سلاطين دولة المماليك البحرية، السلطان سيف الدين قلاوون الألفي الصالحي، الملقب بالملك المنصور، وأصله من قبيلة أوغلي القوقازية، جُلب صغيرًا لبلاد الشام وكان مملوك الأمير علاء الدين أقسنقر العادلي، وقد اشتراه بألف دينار فعُرف بالألفي، ثم اشتراه نجم الدين أيوب سلطان مصر فصار من يومها من ضمن المماليك البحرية، وقد زامل الظاهر بيبرس البندقداري في حرب الصليبيين في المنصورة وفارسكور أثناء الحملة الصليبية السابعة، كما رافق بيبرس في الهرب إلى الشام بعد مقتل أستاذهم فارس الدين أقطاي أيام عز الدين أيبك، ثم عاد واشترك في قتال المغول في عين جالوت، ولما تولى بيبرس سلطنة المماليك صار قلاوون أكبر أمرائه، وقد زوج ابنته من الابن الأكبر لبيبرس «بركة خان»( [1]).
تولى سلطنة المماليك سنة 678هـ بعد عزل
السلطان الطفل «بدر الدين سلامش» ابن بيبرس لعدم صلاحيته للمنصب الخطير، وقد واجه معارضات قوية من المماليك الظاهرية أتباع الظاهر بيبرس ومن نائب دمشق الأمير سنقر الأشقر الذي تحالف مع مغول فارس والعراق وتلقب بالملك الكامل وحشد الجيوش لمحاربة سيف الدين قلاوون، ولكن سيف الدين قضى على كل هذه التمردات والفتن، ثم تفرغ بعدها لمواجهة الخطر الصليبي والمغولي واستكمال المهمة التي كان بيبرس قد اضطلع بها من قبل.
ومن أعظم أعمال سيف الدين قلاوون هو معركة حمص الكبرى ضد المغول سنة 680هـ؛
حيث قاد المسلمون في معركة رهيبة ضد الغزو المغولي وانتصر عليهم انتصارًا عظيمًا من جنس عين جالوت كسر به شوكة التتار فترة طويلة، وفي نفس الوقت أقام قلاوون علاقات وثيقة مع مغول القبيلة الذهبية المسلمين، ولما أعلن حاكم مغول العراق وفارس أي ما تعرف بالدولة الإيلخانية تكودار بن هولاكو إسلامه سنة 682هـ أقام معه قلاوون علاقات مودة وصداقة.
أما على الجبهة الصليبية فلقد هادنهم قلاوون حتى يفرغ من أمر
المغول، فلما انتصر عليهم في «حمص» بادر بالعمل ضد الصليبيين وكانوا متمركزين في إمارة طرابلس، ففتح حصن المرقب الذي كان بيد الفرسان الإستبارية وكان خط الدفاع الأول لطرابلس وذلك سنة 684هـ، ثم استولى على اللاذقية سنة 686هـ ثم فتح طرابلس وبيروت وجبلة سنة 688هـ، ولم يبق للصليبيين أي مستوطنات إلا في عكا وصيدا، وقد أسرع من فيها بعقد معاهدة بشروط مهينة ومذلة لهم حفاظًا على وجودهم بالشام، ولكن سيف الدين قلاوون ما لبث أن قرر فتح عكا وطرد الصليبيين من بلاد الشام والإسلام للأبد، وأثناء استعداده وتحضيره لفتح عكا وافته المنية في 6 من ذي القعدة سنة 689هـ ـ 11 نوفمبر 1290م فحزن الناس عليه بشدة وتأسفوا على رحيله.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:07 PM

راما كريشنا


يتمه : مات ابوه وعمره 7 سنوات.
مجاله: متصوف هندي.

يعتبر راما كريشنا أضخم العقول التي أنجبتها الهند وكثيرمن الفلاسفة الغربيين ينظرون إليه نظرتهم الى علماء التصوف الأسلامي أو القديسين المسيحيين....واسمه الحقيقي غاداهار..أي حامل الصولجان
وهو أسم لا يطلق
الاعلى الذن ينتمون الى الطبقات الهندوكية الراقية.
أمثال:غاندي ونهرو
وطاغور.....


كان راما كريشنا كثير التأمل ,ويميل الى الأنزواءعن الحياة الأجتماعية.والاكثارمن الترددعلى المعابد والدخول في جدل روحي وفلسفي مع الكهنة ورجال الدين....

ويقال انه قد وقعت له عدة اغماءات روحية \ ينسى فيها كل ما حوله.
وعندما اصبح كاهنا ونذر نفسه كليا لله.

بدأت حجب الحياة تنكشف امامه حتى صارأكبر غورو...معلم يوغا كبير....عرفته الهند في تاريخها,واخذ ينشر ويعلم الحقائق الروحية مستعينا في التعبيرعن أفكاره بالقصص والأمثال,على طريقة السيد المسيح عليه السلام. الى أن توفي عام 1886وكانت تعاليمه قد أنتشرت في جميع أنحاء العالم. وأقام أتباعه ومريدوه مراكز..أشرم..في أوروباوأسيا وأمريكا.


ومن مختاراته:
عليكم أولاأن تحققوا الله في أنفسكم وبعد ذلك يمكنكم الأنصراف الى جمع الثروة, ولكن اياكم أن تفعلواالعكس. لأنكم اذا عشتم حيلتكم الأرضية بعد حصولكم على الحياة الروحية فلن تتعرضوا لفقدان الراحة النفسية
.
...............................
Ramakrishna (February 18, 1836 – August 16, 1886), born Gadadhar Chattopadhyay, was a famous mystic of 19th-century India. His religious school of thought led to the formation of the Ramakrishna Mission by his chief disciple Vivekananda – both were influential figures in the Bengali Renaissance as well as the Hindu renaissance during the 19th and 20th centuries. Many of his disciples and devotees believe he was an Avatar or incarnation of God. He is also referred as "Paramahamsa" by his devotees, as such he is popularly known as Ramkrishna Paramhansa.
Ramakrishna was born in a poor BrahminVaishnava family in rural Bengal. He became a priest of the Dakshineswar Kali Temple, dedicated to the goddess Kali, which had the influence of the main strands of Bengali bhakti tradition. His first spiritual teacher was an ascetic woman skilled in Tantra and Vaishnava bhakti. Later an Advaita Vedantin ascetic taught him non-dual meditation, and according to Ramakrishna, he experienced nirvikalpa samadhi under his guidance. Ramakrishna also experimented with other religions, notably Islam and Christianity, and said that they all lead to the same God. Though conventionally uneducated, he attracted the attention of the middle class and numerous Bengali intellectuals
Birth and childhood
Ramakrishna was born in 1836, in the village of Kamarpukur, in the Hooghly district of West Bengal, into a very poor but pious, orthodox brahmin family. Located far from the railroad, Kamarpukur was untouched by the glamour of the city and contained rice fields, tall palms, royal banyans, a few lakes, and two cremation grounds. His parents were Khudiram Chattopâdhyâya and Chandramani Devî. According to his followers, Ramakrishna's parents experienced supernatural incidents, visions before his birth. His father Khudiram had a dream in Gaya in which Lord Gadadhara (a form of Vishnu), said that he would be born as his son. Chandramani Devi is said to have had a vision of light entering her womb from Shiva's temple.
Ramakrishna attended a village school with some regularity for 12 years, he later rejected the traditional schooling saying that he was not interested in a "bread-winning education". Kamarpukur, being a transit-point in well-established pilgrimage routes to Puri, brought him into contact with renunciates and holy men. He became well-versed in the Puranas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Bhagavata Purana, hearing them from wandering monks and the Kathaks—a class of men in ancient India who preached and sang the Purāṇas. He could read and write in Bengali. While the official biographies write that the name Ramakrishna was given by Mathura Biswas—chief patron at Dakshineswar Kali Temple, it has also been suggest that this name was given by his own parents.
Ramakrishna describes his first spiritual ecstasy at the age of six: while walking along the paddy fields, a flock of white cranes flying against a backdrop of dark thunder clouds caught his vision. He reportedly became so absorbed by this scene that he lost outward consciousness and experienced indescribable joy in that state.[25][26] Ramakrishna reportedly had experiences of similar nature a few other times in his childhood—while worshipping the goddess Vishalakshi, and portraying god Shiva in a drama during Shivaratri festival. From his tenth or eleventh year on, the trances became common, and by the final years of his life, Ramakrishna's samādhi periods occurred almost daily.[26][27]
Ramakrishna's father died in 1843, after which time family responsibilities fell on his elder brother Ramkumar. This loss drew him closer to his mother, and he spent his time in household activities and daily worship of the household deities and became more involved in contemplative activities such as reading the sacred epics.
When Ramakrishna was in his teens, the family's financial position worsened. Ramkumar started a Sanskrit school in Calcutta and also served as a priest. Ramakrishna moved to Calcutta in 1852 with Ramkumar to assist in the priestly work

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:07 PM

جين راسين
يتمه : ماتت الام وعمره 3 سنوات ومات الاب وعمره 4 سنوات
مجاله: مسرحي فرنسي.

Jean Racine (French pronunciation: [ʒɑ̃ ʁaˈsin]), baptismal name Jean-Baptiste Racine (22 December 1639 – 21 April 1699), was a French dramatist, one of the "Big Three" of 17th century France (along with Molière and Corneille), and one of the most important literary figures in the Western tradition. Racine was primarily a tragedian, producing such 'examples of neoclassical perfection'[1] as Phèdre,[2]Andromaque,[3] and Athalie,[4] although he did write one comedy, Les Plaideurs,[5] and a muted tragedy,[6]Esther, for the young.
Racine's plays displayed his mastery of the dodecasyllabic alexandrine; his verse is renowned for elegance, purity, speed, and fury,[7][8] and for what Robert Lowell described as a 'diamond-edge', and the 'glory of its hard, electric rage'. Racine's works are widely considered to be untranslatable,[11][12][13][14] although many eminent poets have attempted to do so,[including Lowell, Ted Hughes, and Derek Mahon into English, and Schiller into German. Racine's dramaturgy is marked by his psychological insight, the prevailing passion of his characters, and the nakedness of both the plot and stage.
Racine was born on 22 December 1639 in La Ferté-Milon (Aisne), in the former Picardy province in northern France. He was an orphan by the age of four (his mother died in 1641 and his father in 1643) and was raised by his grandparents. At the death of his grandfather, in 1649, his grandmother, Marie des Moulins, went to live in the convent of Port-Royal and took her grandson with her.
He received a classical education at the Petites écoles de Port-Royal, a religious institution which would greatly influence other contemporary figures including Blaise Pascal. Port-Royal was run by followers of Jansenism, a theology condemned as heretical by the French bishops and the Pope. Racine's interactions with the Jansenists in his years at this academy would have great influence over him for the rest of his life. At Port-Royal, he excelled in his studies of the Classics and the themes of Greek and Romanmythology would play large roles in his future works. He was expected to study law at the Collège de Harcourt in Paris but, instead, found himself drawn to a more artistic lifestyle. Experimenting with poetry yielded high praise from France's greatest literary critic, Nicolas Boileau with whom Racine would later become great friends, and Boileau would often claim that he was behind the budding poet's work. He eventually took up residence in Paris where he became involved in theatrical circles.
His first play, Amasie, never reached the stage. On 20 June 1664, Racine's tragedy La Thébaïde ou les frères ennemis (The Thebans or the enemy Brothers) was produced by Molière's troupe at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal, in Paris. The following year, Molière also put on Racine's second play, Alexandre le Grand. However, this play garnered such good feedback from the public that Racine secretly negotiated with a rival play company, the Hôtel de Bourgogne, to perform the play since they had a better reputation for performing tragedies. Thus, Alexandre premiered for the second time, by a different acting troupe, eleven days after its first showing. Molière could never forgive Racine for his betrayal, and Racine simply widened the rift between him and his former friend by seducing Molière's leading actress, Thérèse du Parc, into becoming his companion both professionally and personally. From this point on, all of Racine's secular plays were performed by the Hôtel de Bourgogne troupe.
Though both La Thébaide (1664) and its successor, Alexandre (1665), had classical themes, Racine was already entering into controversy and forced to field accusations that he was polluting the minds of his audiences. He broke all ties with Port-Royal, and proceeded with Andromaque (1667), which told the story of Andromache, widow of Hector, and her fate following the Trojan War. Amongst his rivals were Pierre Corneille and his brother, Thomas Corneille. Tragedians often competed with alternative versions of the same plot: for example, Michel le Clerc produced an Iphigénie in the same year as Racine (1674), and Jacques Pradon also wrote a play about Phèdre (1677). The success of Pradon's work (the result of the activities of a claque) was one of the events which caused Racine to renounce his work as a dramatist at that time, even though his career up to this point was so successful that he was the first French author to live almost entirely on the money he earned from his writings. Others, including the historian Warren Lewis, attribute his retirement from the theater to qualms of conscience.
However, one major incident which seems to have contributed to Racine's departure from public life was his implication in a court scandal of 1679. He got married at about this time to the pious Catherine de Romanet, and his religious beliefs and devotion to the Jansenist sect were revived. He and his wife eventually had two sons and five daughters. Around the time of his marriage and departure from the theater, Racine accepted a position as a royal historiographer in the court of King Louis XIV, alongside his friend Boileau. He kept this position in spite of the minor scandals he was involved in. In 1672, he was elected to the Académie française, eventually gaining much power over this organization. Two years later, he was bestowed the title of "treasurer of France", and he was later distinguished as an "ordinary gentleman of the king" (1690), and then as a secretary of the king (1696). Because of his flourishing career in the court, Louis XIV provided for his widow and children after his death. When at last he returned to the theatre, it was at the request of Madame de Maintenon, morganatic second wife of King Louis XIV, with the moral fables, Esther (1689) and Athalie (1691), both of which were based on Old Testament stories and intended for performance by the pupils of the school of the Maison royale de Saint-Louis in Saint-Cyr (a commune neighboring Versailles, and now known as "Saint-Cyr l'École").
Jean Racine died in 1699 from cancer of the liver. He requested to be buried in Port-Royal, but after Louis XIV had this site razed in 1710, his remains were moved to the Saint-Étienne-du-Mont church in Paris.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:08 PM

ارنست رينان

يتمه: مات ابوه وعمره خمس سنوات.

مجاله: فيلسوف فرنسي واديب.

Ernest Renan (28 February 1823 – 2 October 1892) was a French philosopher and writer, devoted to his native province of Brittany. He is best known for his influential historical works on early Christianity and his political theories.Birth and family

He was born at Tréguier in Brittany to a family of fishermen. His grandfather, having made a small fortune with his fishing-shack, bought a house at Tréguier and settled there, and his father, captain of a small cutter and an ardent republican, married the daughter of a Royalist tradesman from the neighbouring town of Lannion. All his life, Renan felt a conflict between his father's and his mother's political beliefs.
He was five years old when his father died, and his sister, Henriette, twelve years his senior, became the moral head of the household. Having in vain attempted to keep a school for girls at Tréguier, she departed and went to Paris as teacher in a young ladies' boarding-school.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:09 PM

سيزار بالبو

يتمه : فقد الام وهو في سن الـ 3...وتربي في بيت جدته.
مجاله: كاتب ايطالي.
Balbo
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Cesare Balbo (21 November 1789–1853), Count of Vinadio, was an Italian writer and statesman.
Balbo was born at Turin on the 21st of November 1789. His father, Prospero Balbo, who belonged to a noble Piedmontese family, held a high position in the Sardinian court, and at the time of Cesare’s birth was mayor of the capital.
His mother, Enrichetta Taparelli d'Azeglio, died when he was three years old; and he was brought up in the house of his great-grandmother, the countess of Bugino. In 1798 he joined his father at Paris.
From 1808 to 1814 Balbo served in various capacities under the Napoleonic empire at Florence, Rome, Paris and in Illyria. On the fall of Napoleon he entered the service of his native country. While his father was appointed minister of the interior, he entered the army, and undertook political missions to Paris and London. On the outbreak of the revolution of 1821, of which he disapproved, although he was suspected of sympathizing with it, he was forced into exile; and though not long after he was allowed to return to Piedmont, all public service was denied him.
Reluctantly, and with frequent endeavours to obtain some appointment, he gave himself up to literature as the only means left him to influence the destinies of his country. The great object of his labours was to help in securing the independence of Italy from foreign control. Of true Italian unity he had no expectation and no desire, but he was devoted to the house of Savoy, which he foresaw was destined to change the fate of Italy. A confederation of separate states, not under the supremacy of the pope like Gioberti, but led by Piedmont, was the genuine ideal of Balbo. But Gioberti, in his Primato, seemed to him to neglect the first essential of independence, which he accordingly inculcated in his Speranze or Hopes of Italy, in which he suggests that Austria should seek compensation in the Balkans for the inevitable loss of her Italian provinces. Balbo believed that the papacy could become an enemy of a large, united Italy (as it did, indeed, become for many years). Preparation, both military and moral, alertness and patience were his constant theme.
He did not desire revolution, but reform; and thus he became the leader of a moderate party, and the steady opponent not only of despotism but of democracy. At last in 1848 his hopes were to some extent satisfied by the constitution granted by the king, known as the Statuto albertino. He was appointed a member of the commission on the electoral law, and became first constitutional prime minister of Piedmont, but only held office a few months. With the ministry of d’Azeglio, which soon after came to power, he was on friendly terms, and his pen continued the active defence of his political principles till his death on the 3rd of June 1853. He published Quattro Novelle in 1829; Storia d’Italia sotto i Barbari in 1830; Vita di Dante, 1839; Meditazioni Storiche, 1842—1845; Le Speranze d’Italia, 1844; Pensieri sulla Storia d’Italia, 1858; Della Monarchia rappresentativa in Italia (Florence, 1857).

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:10 PM

ديفد هلتون

يتمه : مات ابوه وعمره 16 سنة.
مجاله: مراسل صحفي كندي.
David Halton
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
David Halton (born Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, England, 1940) is a Canadian reporter. Until his retirement in June 2005, he was the senior correspondent in Washington for CBC News.
Halton was born in Beaconsfield, England in 1940. His father Matthew Halton, was a war correspondent for the CBC Radio during World War II and died when David was 16 years old on December 3, 1956.

The senior Halton had a big influence in David's career choice. His sister Kathleen Tynan was the second wife and biographer of the English theatre critic Ken Tynan.
David Halton joined CBC in 1965, and has spent time as a foreign affairs correspondent in:
· Paris correspondent 1965-1968
· Moscow correspondent 1968-1969
· London
· Quebec
· Middle East
· Vietnam 1970s
· Ottawa 1978-1991
· Washington, D.C. 1991-2005
Before moving to Washington, Halton was the chief political correspondent in Ottawa for the CBC. He retired in June 2005, although he still acts as a special contributor on CBC, and is currently working on a book.
Halton is fluent in French and Russian. He married his Russian wife, Zoya, while on assignment in Moscow.
His Son Daniel now works as a reporter for the CBC.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:10 PM

جريجوريو مارنيون

يتمه: ماتت امه وعمره 3 سنوات.
مجاله: فيلسوف وكاتب وطبيب وعالم اسباني.
Gregorio Marañón
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Gregorio Marañón
Born
May 1887, 19(19-05-1887)
Madrid Spain

Died
March 27, 1960(1960-03-27) (aged 72)
Madrid Spain

Nationality
Spanish
Fields
Endocrinology
Psycology
Historical essay

Spouse
Dolores Moya


Gregorio Marañón y Posadillo (19 May 1887, Madrid – 27 March 1960, Madrid) was a Spanishphysician, scientist, historian, writer and philosopher. He married Dolores Moya in 1911, they had four children (Carmen, Belén, María Isabel and Gregorio).
An austere, humanist and liberal man, he is considered one of the most brilliant Spanish intellectuals of the 20th century. He also stands out for his elegant literary style. He was a Republican, fought the Miguel Primo de Riveradictatorship though he later showed his disagreement with Spanish Communism.
Son of a jurist, his mother died when he was three years old.
He grew up as an avid reader, and learned English, French and German. From a very early age he was in contact with the intellectual circles of the time due to his father's friendships with José María de Pereda, Alfredo Vicenti, Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo and Benito Perez Galdós among others.
Gregorio Marañón accompanied young king Alfonso XIII during the royal visit to the backward region of Las Hurdes in 1922.
In Medical School he had five great teachers: Federico Olóriz Aguilera, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Juan Madinaveitia, Manuel Alonso Sañudo and Alejandro San Martín y Satrústegui. He specialized in endocrinology and became professor of that specialty in Complutense University in Madrid since 1931. He founded the Institute of Medical Pathology and was president of the Institute of Experimental Endocrinology and the Centre of Biological Research. He contributed to establish a relationship between Psychology and Endocrinology.
Books
· Tiberius: A Study in Resentment (1956) - translated from Tiberio: Historia de un resentimiento (1939)

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:10 PM

رادلفوا بيازون
يتمه: توفي والده وعمره 7 سنوات
مجاله: قيادي من الفلبين.
Rodolfo Biazon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Rodolfo "Pong" Gaspar Biazon (born April 14, 1935) is a politician in the Philippines. He is a former Senator. He was elected Senator in the 1992 election for a term of 3 years. He was elected to his first six-year term in the 1998 election, and was re-elected in the 2004 election. He is now the representative for the lone district of Muntinlupa City.
Early life and career
Biazon was born on April 14, 1935 in Batac City, Ilocos Norte. His father Rufino Biazon, was a doughmaker then, while his mother Juliana Gaspar, was a clotheswasher.
His father died and left him along with his mother and three younger sisters when he was seven years old.
At a young age of eight, he and his sisters had already experienced hardship, especially during the Japanese regime. Living in a makeshift shanty in Cavite, they had to peddle food, collected bottles and newspapers, which were later sold in order to earn a living for the family. In spite of their condition, it did not stop him from obtaining his education.
He enrolled as a Grade One student at the age of eleven, in 1946. In order to support his education, and at the same time look for ways to earn money, so he went to school in the morning and worked in the afternoon. He would collect seashells in Manila Bay which were in turn sold at the market. He studied in Jose Rizal Elementary School, Pasay City, for his primary education where he graduated salutatorian. He continued working, washing clothes for other people in order to sustain his high school education at the Jose Abad Santos High School located at the Arellano University, Pasay City in 1955. He also graduated from this school with honors. He stopped doing laundry and instead worked as a laborer in then Highway 54 now known as EDSA, this time to sustain his college education in FEATI where he took mechanical engineering.
He also attended other trainings or schooling which include the TOP Management Program at the Asian Institute of Management; Command and General Staff Course in Quantico, Virginia, U.S.; Crisis Program in California, U.S.; Allied Combat Intelligence Course in Okinawa, Japan; Senior Officer Maintenance Course in Kentucky, U.S.; Amphibious Warfare Course in Quantico, Virginia, U.S. and, Military Instructors in Norfolk, Virginia, United States.[1]

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:11 PM

فيتال راي
يتمه: مات ابوه وعمره 3 سنوات
مجاله: عالم في مجال المايكروبيولوجي.

Vittal Rai
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


Vittal Rai. Palthad Dr., Ph. D (Botany), M.Sc (Botany), M.Sc (Microbiology), B.Sc Ag.; (25 October 1935 – 19 December 1995) was a Scientist, Professor and Administrator. He was the Fourth Vice-Chancellor of UAS Dharwad (1991–1994)
One of the leading scientists in India in the field of Bio-Fertilisers. He has authored significant number of books based on his research and guided several researchers and acamedicians today to their doctoral degree.
Among the many honours he received were a CM's Rajyotsava Award (1994)

Early life and education
Dr. Rai was born into a Tulu speaking Bunt family at Palthad, a small village near Puttur in South Kanara district. He is the second of 3 children of N. Jathappa Rai and Palthad Shubravathi Rai.
His Father died when Dr. Rai was just 3 years old and the his mother was the lone pillar of support for the family. His older brother P. Narayan Rai soon took over the responsibility and support the family.
Dr. Rai's primary education was at Primary Board High School at Bellare. His college education was in Alloysius college Mangalore. He then went to University of Agricultural Sciences Dharwad where he completed his Bachelor's degree in Agriculture and Post graduation in Plant Microbiology. Dr. Rai then proceeded to the United States to further enhance his knowledge and completed his second Post Graduate degree in Ecology and completed his Doctorial studies on Plant Pathology for which he received his Ph.D

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:11 PM

كلارك هولنج
يتمه : امه ماتت هو رضيع ( عامه الاول).
مجاله: فنان امريكي واقعي.

Clark Hulings
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Clark Hulings (November 20, 1922 – February 2, 2011)was an Americanrealistpainter. He was born in Florida and raised in New Jersey. Clark also lived in Spain, New York, Louisiana, and throughout Europe before settling in Santa Fe, New Mexico, in the early 1970s. The travels did much to influence his keen eye for people in the state of accomplishing daily tasks.
His training as an artist began as a teenager with Sigismund Ivanowsky and George Bridgman, and concluded at the Art Students League of New York with Frank Reilly. Clark came back to the League to give a lecture in 2007.
After early careers in portraiture and illustration, he devoted himself to easel painting. A modern genre painter, he is best known for his elaborate European and Mexican market and street scenes, his still lifes of roses and his depictions of donkeys. For the past forty years Hulings’ art has been eagerly sought after by collectors, museums and corporations.[3][4]
Early life and early career
Clark Hulings was born in 1922 in Florida, where his father, Courtland Marcus Hulings, was the manager of a plant which produced a gas for fumigating orange trees.
His mother died of tuberculosis when he was an infant, and he and his sister, Susan, were sent to live with their maternal grandparents in Potsdam, New York, for the next three years, while his father worked in Valencia, Spain.
In Valencia, Hulings’ father, while representing American Cyanamid, courted and married Elena Harker, the 21-year-old daughter of Herbert Edward Harker, the British Consul in Valencia, and his wife, Julia Howard Harker. Courtland Hulings and Elena Harker were married in London, England, in 1925. The two children joined them abroad. Clark was raised by his much beloved stepmother Elena, whose image appears in several later paintings as a saintly mother type (often with an aura near her head, doing chores such as washing clothes or buying flowers).
In 1928, the Hulings family returned to the United States, settling in Westfield, New Jersey, where Clark's younger sister, Elena, was born. [2] At the age of twelve, his father arranged art lessons with Sigismund Ivanowski, a portrait and landscape painter who had served as Court Painter to Tsar Nicholas II. In his 1986 book "A Gallery of Paintings," Hulings credits his father with conveying to him his "great love of paintings." By the time Hulings graduated from school in 1940, the tuberculosis which had killed his mother left him in fragile health. He was unable to enter college. However, he did continue a limited schedule with Ivanowski, as well as with George Bridgman, the celebrated drawing teacher, at the Art Students League of New York.
In the fall of 1941, Hulings was well enough to enroll at Haverford College. After graduating in 1944 with a degree in Physics, he was appointed to work on the Manhattan Project in Los Alamos, New Mexico. Yet his recurring ill health prevented his acceptance into the program. Instead, he remained in Santa Fe to recuperate, supporting himself by painting pastel portraits of children. In the spring of 1945 he was given a one-man show of landscapes at the New Mexico Museum of Fine Art.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:12 PM

بيير بولينيري
يتمه: مات ابوه وعمره 3 سنوات.
مجاله: عالم : مكتشف في مجال الكهرباء.
Pierre Polinière
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Pierre Polinière (8 September 1671, Coulonces, France - 9 February 1734, Coulonces, France) was an early investigator of electricity and electrical phenomena, notably "barometric light", a form of gas-discharge light, which suggested the possibility of electric lighting. He also helped to introduce the scientific method in French universities.
Biography
Pierre Polinière was the only child of Jean-Baptiste Poulynière and Françoise Vasnier. Pierre's father had inherited an estate in Coulonces in lower Normandy. However, when Pierre was 3 years old, his father died.
Fortunately his mother recognized his potential and strove to get him a good education. After receiving a classical education at the University of Caen, two of his paternal uncles, who were Catholic clergymen, arranged to have him study philosophy at Harcourt College of the University of Paris. There he also studied mathematics under Pierre Varignon (1654–1722), an early advocate of calculus. In the 1690s Poliniere received a degree in medicine; he also became interested in science. He did original research, including studies of the production of light by electrical discharges through low-pressure air, in which field he made discoveries that were simultaneous with, but independent of, those of the Englishman Francis Hauksbee (1666–1713).[4][5][6][7] His discovery that static electricity could generate light in low-pressure gases led him to speculate that lightning was a form of static electric discharge.[8]
He also presented public lectures on science, which included experimental demonstrations of his own devising. Around 1700, he presented these demonstrations before students at the colleges of the University of Paris.[9] His lectures proved very popular: in 1722, he presented a series of experiments before the young king of France, Louis XV. In 1709, he published Expériences de Physique (Physics Experiments),[10] a book presenting his demonstrations on magnetism, light and colors, hydrostatics, the properties of air, and other subjects. The book went through five editions. He was an early French advocate of Isaac Newton’s findings in optics: in the second (and subsequent) editions of his Expériences, he abandoned

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:12 PM

كيفن ميكايل رود

يتمه: مات ابوه وهو في سن الـ 11.
مجاله: قائد استرالي.
Kevin Michael Rudd (born 21 September 1957) is an Australian politician. He was the 26th Prime Minister of Australia (2007–2010) and is currently the Minister for Foreign Affairs. He has been an Australian Labor Party member of the House of Representatives since the 1998 federal election, representing Griffith, Queensland.

Rudd was born in Nambour, Queensland to parents Albert Rudd and Margaret née DeVere, and grew up on a dairy farm in nearby Eumundi. At an early age (5–7) he contracted rheumatic fever and spent a considerable time at home convalescing. It damaged his heart, but this was only discovered some 12 years later. Farm life, which required the use of horses and guns, is where he developed his life-long love of horse riding and shooting clay targets.
When Rudd was 11, his father, a share farmer and Country Party member, died from septicaemia after six weeks in hospital due to a car accident. Rudd states that the family was required to leave the farm amidst financial difficulty between two to three weeks after the death, though the family of the landowner states that the Rudds didn't have to leave for almost six months. Rudd joined the Australian Labor Party in 1972 at the age of 15. He boarded at Marist College Ashgrove in Brisbane although these years were not happy due to the indignity of poverty and reliance on charity – he was known to be a "charity case" due to his father's sudden death; and, he has since described the school as "... tough, harsh, unforgiving, institutional Catholicism of the old school." Two years later, after she retrained as a nurse, his mother moved the family to Nambour, and Rudd rebuilt his standing through study and scholastic application and was dux of Nambour State High School in 1974. In that year he was also the Queensland winner of the Rotary 'Youth Speaks for Australia' public speaking contest.
Rudd is of English and Irish descent. His paternal 4th great-grandparents were English and of convict heritage: Thomas Rudd and Mary Cable (she was from Essex). Thomas arrived from London, England in 1801, Mary in 1804. Thomas Rudd, a convict, arrived in NSW on board the Earl Cornwallis in 1801. He was convicted of stealing a bag of sugar.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:13 PM

جوزف فرانسس لادو

يتمه: ماتت أمه وعمره 7 سنوات.
مجاله: رجل أعمال .

Joseph Francis Ladue (July 28, 1855 – June 27, 1900) was a prospector, businessman and founder of the Dawson City, Yukon. Joseph Francis Ladue was born in Schuyler Falls, New York. His mother died when he was only 7 years old, and his father died in 1874. Upon his father's death, 19-year-old Joe headed West. He worked in a gold mine as a general labourer, engineer, foreman and superintendent. He stuck with that and went prospecting through Arizona and New Mexico. He did not strike it rich and in 1882 he crossed the Chilkoot Pass into the interior of the Yukon. He was prospecting and trading there a couple of years.
In August 1896, a few days after discovery of gold on Klondike, he staked 250 acres (1.0 km2) of bloggy flats at the mouth of the Klondike River to Yukon River as a townsite. In January 1897 he named a new town Dawson after Canadian geologist George Mercer Dawson. In July, 1897 about 5000 people lived there. Joe Ladue could sell town lots from $800 to $8000 and he could leave Dawson rich in that year.
He returned to his home town and in December 1897 he married Anna "Kitty" Mason. He came from Yukon rich, but unfortunately in poor health. He died at Schuyler Falls on June 27, 1900.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:13 PM

كون سان
يتمه : والده توفي وهو صغير.
مجاله: عالم.
Ko San (born October 19, 1976) is a South Korean researcher at the Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology.
Ko was born in Busan. His father died when he was a boy, and his mother raised Ko and his sister. A graduate of Hanyoung Foreign Language High School, Ko went on to study mathematics at Seoul National University. He won a bronze medal at a national amateur boxing tournament in 2004 and climbed a 7,546-meter high mountain in China’s Xinjiang Province, Muztagh Ata, the same year.
On December 25 2006, he was chosen as one of two finalists in the Korean Astronaut Program, set to fly as a crew on the Russian Soyuz TMA-12 in April 2008.
On September 5, 2007, the Korean Ministry of Science and Technology chose Ko San over Yi So-Yeon based on

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:14 PM

جوزف برور

يتمه: امه ماتت وهو صغير جدا وربته جدته.
مجاله : طبيب وعالم نفس...اسس علم النفس التحليلي.
Josef Breuer (January 15, 1842 Vienna – June 20, 1925 Vienna) was an Austrianphysician whose works laid the foundation of psychoanalysis.
Born in Vienna, his father, Leopold Breuer, taught religion in Vienna's Jewish community. Breuer's mother died when he was quite young, and he was raised by his maternal grandmother and educated by his father until the age of eight.
He graduated from the Akademisches Gymnasium of Vienna in 1858 and then studied at the university for one year, before enrolling in the medical school of the University of Vienna. He passed his medical exams in 1867 and went to work as assistant to the internistJohann Oppolzer at the university.
Anna O.
Main article: Anna O.
A close friend, mentor, and collaborator with Sigmund Freud, Breuer is perhaps best known for his work with Anna O. (the pseudonym of Bertha Pappenheim), a woman suffering from "paralysis of her limbs, and anaesthesias, as well as disturbances of vision and speech."
Breuer observed that her symptoms were reduced or disappeared after she described them to him. Anna O. humorously called this procedure chimney sweeping. She also coined the more serious appellation for this form of therapy, "her talking cure," which is widely regarded as the basis of Freudian psychoanalysis.
Ernest Jones considered: "Freud was greatly interested in hearing of the case of Anna O, which [...] made a deep impression on him"; and in his 1909 Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, Freud generously pointed out: "I was a student and working for my final examinations at the time when [...] Breuer, first (in 1880-2) made use of this procedure. [...] Never before had anyone removed a hysterical symptom by such a method."
Freud and Breuer documented their discussions of Anna O., along with other case studies, in their 1895 book, Studies on Hysteria. These discussion of Breuer's treatment of Anna O. became "a formative basis of Freudian theory and psychoanalytic practice; especially the importance of fantasies (in extreme cases, hallucinations), hysteria [...], and the concept and method of catharsis which were Breuer's major contributions."
The two men became increasingly estranged at the same time, however, and from a Freudian standpoint, "while Breuer, with his intelligent and amorous patient Anna O., had unwittingly laid the groundwork for psychoanalysis, it was Freud who drew the consequences from Breuer's case.".
Other work
Breuer, working under Ewald Hering at the military medical school in Vienna, was the first to demonstrate the role of the vagus nerve in the reflex nature of respiration. This was a departure from previous physiological understanding, and changed the way scientists viewed the relationship of the lungs to the nervous system. The mechanism is now known as the Hering–Breuer reflex.[7]
Independent of each other[8] in 1873, Breuer and the physicist and mathematician Ernst Mach discovered how the sense of balance (i.e., the perception of the head’s imbalance) functions: that it is managed by information the brain receives from the movement of a fluid in the semicircular canals of the inner ear. That the sense of balance depends on the three semicircular canals was discovered in 1870 by the physiologist Friedrich Goltz, but Goltz did not discover how the balance-sensing apparatus functions.
In 1894, Breuer was elected a Corresponding Member of the Vienna Academy of Science.
Family
Breuer married Mathilde Altmann in 1868, and they had five children. His daughter Dora later committed suicide rather than be deported by the Nazis. Likewise, one of his granddaughters died at their hands.

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:14 PM

هيكتور هيو منرو (ساكي )

يتمه : يتيم في سن الثانية .
مجاله : اديب متعدد مجالات الانتاج.

Hector Hugh Munro (18 December 1870 – 13 November 1916), better known by the pen name Saki, was a British writer, whose witty and sometimes macabre stories satirised Edwardian society and culture. He is considered a master of the short story and is often compared to O. Henry and Dorothy Parker. His tales feature delicately drawn characters and finely judged narratives. "The Open Window" may be his best known, with a closing line ("Romance at short notice was her speciality") that has entered the lexicon.
Family Background and Life

Hector Hugh Munro was born in Akyab, Burma (now known as Myanmar), the son of Charles Augustus Munro and Mary Frances Mercer (1843 to 1872). Mary was the daughter of Rear Admiral Samuel Mercer, and her nephew, Cecil William Mercer, was also to gain fame as an author under the nom-de-plume Dornford Yates. Charles Munro was an inspector-general for the Burmese police when that country was still part of the British Empire.
In 1872, Mary, who had gone home on a visit to England, was charged by a cow; the shock caused her to miscarry. She never recovered and soon died. Charles Munro sent his children, including two-year-old Hector, to England, where they were brought up by their grandmother and aunts in a strict, straitlaced household.
في العام 1872 والتي ذهبت في زيارة للأهل في انجلترا تعرضت لإصابة من بقرة وقد أدت الصدمة إلى إسقاط حملها ومن ثم موتها . وبعد موت الأم قام الأب بإرسال أطفاله إلى انجلترا بما فهيم ( هيكتور والذي كان عمره عندها عامان ) حيث عاشا مع جدتهما واثنتين من العمات في جو متزمت.
Munro was educated at Pencarwick School in Exmouth and at Bedford Grammar School. When his father retired to England, he travelled on a few occasions with his sister and father, between fashionable European spas and tourist resorts. In 1893, he followed his father in joining the Indian Imperial Police, where he was posted to Burma (as was another acerbic and pseudonymous writer a generation later: George Orwell). Two years later, failing health from malaria forced his resignation and return to England.
At the start of World War I, although 43 and officially over age, Munro joined the Royal Fusiliers regiment of the British Army as an ordinary soldier, refusing a commission. More than once he returned to the battlefield when officially still too sick or injured to fight. He was sheltering in a shell crater near Beaumont-Hamel, France in November 1916 when he was killed by a German sniper. His last words, according to several sources, were "Put that bloody cigarette out!"[5] After his death, his sister Ethel destroyed most of his papers and wrote her own account of their childhood.
Munro was homosexual, but at that time in the UK sexual activity between men was a crime, and the Cleveland Street scandal in 1889, followed by the downfall and disgrace of Oscar Wilde (who was convicted in 1895 after cause célèbre trials) meant that "that side of [Munro's] life had to be secret". Politically, Munro was a Tory and somewhat reactionary in his views.
Short stories

"The Storyteller"

"The Storyteller" is a cynical antidote to crude didacticism. An aunt is traveling by train with her two nieces and a nephew. The children are naughty and mischievous. A bachelor is sitting opposite. The aunt starts telling a moralistic story, but is unable to satisfy the curiosity of the children. The bachelor intervenes and tells a story where the "good" person ends up being unwittingly devoured by a wolf, much to the children's delight. The bachelor is amused with the knowledge that in the future the children will embarrass their guardian by begging to be told "an improper story".
Books
  • 1899: "Dogged" (short story, appeared as written by H. H. M. in St. Paul's, 18 February)
  • 1900: The Rise of the Russian Empire (history)
  • 1902: "The Woman Who Never Should" (political sketch, in Westminster Gazette, 22 July)
  • 1902: The Not So Stories (political sketches, in Westminster Annual)
  • 1902: The Westminster Alice (political sketches, with F. Carruthers Gould)
  • 1904: Reginald (short stories)
  • 1910: Reginald in Russia (short stories)
  • 1911: The Chronicles of Clovis (short stories)
  • 1912: The Unbearable Bassington (novel)
  • 1913: When William Came (novel)
  • 1914: Beasts and Super-Beasts (short stories)
  • 1914: "The East Wing" (short story, in Lucas's Annual]] / [[Methuen's Annual)
  • ????: "The Lumber-Room"
  • ????: "The Interlopers"
Posthumous publications:
  • 1919: The Toys of Peace (short stories)
  • 1924: The Square Egg and Other Sketches (short stories)
  • 1924: "The Watched Pot" (play, with Charles Maude)
  • 1926-1927: The Works of Saki (8 vols.)
  • 1930: The Complete Short Stories of Saki
  • 1933: The Complete Novels and Plays of Saki (includes The Westminster Alice)
  • 1934: The Miracle-Merchant (in One-Act Plays for Stage and Study 8)
  • 1950: The Best of Saki (ed. by Graham Greene)
  • 1963: The Bodley Head Saki
  • 1981: Saki (by A.J. Langguth, includes six uncollected stories)
  • 1976: The Complete Saki
  • 1976: Short Stories (ed. by John Letts)
  • 1988: Saki: The Complete Saki, Penguin editionsISBN 978-0-14-118078-6
  • 1995: The Secret Sin of Septimus Brope, and Other Stories
  • 2006: A Shot in the Dark (a compilation of 15 uncollected stories)
Television


In 1962, a Granada Television 8-part TV series, produced by Phillip Mackie, dramatised several stories of Saki. Actors included Mark Burns as Clovis, Fenella Fielding as Mary Drakmanton, Richard Vernon as the Major, Rosamund Greenwood as Veronique and Martita Hunt as Lady Bastable. The title of the series was Saki, the Improper Stories of H. H. Munro (a reference to the ending of "The Story Teller").
A dramatisation of "The Schartz-Metterklume Method" was an episode in the series Alfred Hitchcock Presents in 1960.
Who Killed Mrs De Ropp?, a 2007 BBC dramatisation starring Ben Daniels and Gemma Jones, showcased three of Saki's short stories, "The Storyteller", "The Lumber Room" and "Sredni Vashtar".
Theatre
  • The Playboy of the Week-End World (1977) by Emlyn Williams, adapts 16 of Saki's stories.
  • Wolves at the Window (2008) by Toby Davies, adapts 12 of Saki's stories
  • Saki Shorts. A musical based on 9 stories. Music, book and lyrics by John Gould and Dominic McChesney

ايوب صابر 06-17-2011 11:15 PM

سترلينج نورث
يتمه: ماتت أمه وهو في سن السابعة.
مجاله : روائي وناقد.
Sterling North
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Born
November 4, 1906(1906-11-04)
Lake Koshkonong, Wisconsin

Died
December 22, 1974(1974-12-22) (aged 68)
Morristown, New Jersey

Occupation
novelist, literary critic
Notable work(s)
Rascal

Thomas Sterling North (November 4, 1906 – December 22, 1974) was an Americanauthor of books for children and adults, including 1963's bestselling Rascal. North, who professionally went by "Sterling North", was born on the second floor of a farmhouse on the shores of Lake Koshkonong, a few miles from Edgerton, Wisconsin, in 1906, and died in Morristown, New Jersey in 1974. Surviving a near-paralyzing struggle with polio in his teens, he grew to young adulthood in the quiet southern Wisconsin village of Edgerton, which North transformed into the "Brailsford Junction" setting of several of his books.


Early life and family
Sterling North's maternal grandparents, James Hervey Nelson and Sarah Orelup Nelson, were Wisconsin pioneers. Born in Putnam County, New York, James moved first to near Rochester, New York, then to Menomonee, in Waukesha County, Wisconsin (near Milwaukee), then pioneered a farm near present day South Wayne, in southwestern Wisconsin. His daughter, Sarah Elizabeth "Elizabeth" Nelson, was Sterling North's mother; she died when Sterling was seven years old. She married David Willard North, also the product of a pioneering local family, whose brother ran the family farm.
Sterling North had three siblings: two sisters, Jessica Nelson North who was an author, poet, and editor; Theo, who was the martinet in the family; and a brother, Herschel, who survived World War I. When Sterling North was eleven (in 1917, which would have been the year of his maternal grandfather's 100th birthday), several of his uncles wrote extended biographies about their parents and their pioneer farm life. One of these uncles was Justus Henry Nelson, an early missionary in the Amazon Basin. This writing effort was at the same time as the setting of Rascal and may have been an early literary inspiration to North.
Writing career
After attending the University of Chicago (he left without graduating in 1929), North worked as a reporter (eventually literary editor) for the Chicago Daily News, the New York World-Telegram, and the New York Sun, before becoming a full-time freelance writer. In 1940, in his position as Chicago Daily News Literary Editor, North was one of the first public figures to denounce the newly popular medium of comic books. Barely two years after the introduction of Superman, North wrote that comics were "a poisonous mushroom growth of the last two years" and that comic book publishers were "guilty of a cultural slaughter of the innocents."[1] (These charges were echoed over the following 15 years by other public figures like J. Edgar Hoover, John Mason Brown, and most notably Dr. Fredric Wertham, until Congressional hearings led to the mid-1950s self-censorship and rapid shrinkage of the comics industry.)
One of North's first books, The Pedro Gorino, published in 1929, was a narrative of the life of Harry Dean, an African-American sea captain. A 1934 North novel, Plowing on Sunday, featured a rare dust jacket illustration by Iowa artist Grant Wood.
North's book Midnight and Jeremiah was made into the Disney movie So Dear to My Heart in 1949. (The movie was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song for Burl Ives's version of the 17th century English song "Lavender Blue). In addition, North wrote Abe Lincoln: Log Cabin to White House, The Wolfling: A Documentary Novel of the Eighteen-Seventies, Racoons are the Brightest People, Hurry Spring, The Wolfling,and many other books.
In 1957, he became the general editor of Houghton Mifflin's North Star Books. This firm published biographies of American heroes for young adult readers. Although uncredited, North's beloved bride, Gladys Buchanan North, also contributed to the editing process.
Rascal
North published his most famous work, Rascal, in 1963. The book is a remembrance of a year in his childhood when he raised a baby raccoon which he named Rascal. It received a Newbery Honor in 1964, a Sequoyah Book Award in 1966, and a Young Reader's Choice Award in 1966. It was made into the Disney movie of the same name in 1969. Additionally, it was made into a 52-episode Japanese anime entitled Araiguma Rasukaru. Araiguma Rascal means Racoon Rascal. The success of the anime was responsible for the unfortunate introduction of the North American Raccoon into Japan
Subtitled "a memoir of a better era", North's book is a prose poem to adolescent angst. Rascal chronicles young Sterling's loving, troubled relationship with his father, dreamer David Willard North, and the aching loss represented by the death of his mother, Elizabeth Nelson North. The boy reconnects with society through the unlikely intervention of his pet raccoon, a "ringtailed wonder" charmer that dominates almost every page.
The author's sister, poet and art historian Jessica Nelson North, is one note of early 1900s normalcy in the book. She wasn't particularly pleased with how her brother portrayed her family in Rascal, yet was proud of her brother's achievement nonetheless.


الساعة الآن 02:34 PM

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