Pearl Sydenstricker Buck (June 26, 1892 – March 6, 1973), also known by her Chinese name Sai Zhenzhu (Chinese: was an American writer who spent most of her time until 1934 in China. Her novel The Good Earth was the best-selling fiction book in the U.S. in 1931 and 1932, and won the Pulitzer Prize in 1932. In 1938, she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, "for her rich and truly epic descriptions of peasant life in China and for her biographical masterpieces."[1]

Pearl Buck was born in Hillsboro, West Virginia, to Caroline Stulting (1857–1921) and Absalom Sydenstricker. Her parents, Southern Presbyterian missionaries, traveled to China soon after their marriage on July 8, 1880, but returned to the United States for Pearl's birth.

When Pearl was three months old, the family returned to China to be stationed first in Zhenjiang (then often known as Jingjiang or, in the Postal Romanization, Tsingkiang), (this is near Nanking). Pearl was raised in a bilingual environment, tutored in English by her mother and in classical Chinese by a Mr. Kung

The Boxer Uprising greatly affected Pearl and family; their Chinese friends deserted them, and Western visitors decreased.

The boxer uprising means ( Officially supported peasant uprising in 1900 in China that attempted to drive all foreigners from the country. Boxer was the English name given to a Chinese secret society that practiced boxing and calisthenic rituals in the belief that it would make its members impervious to bullets. Support for them grew in northern China during the late 19th century, when China's people were suffering from growing economic impoverishment and the country was forced to grant humiliating concessions to Western powers. In June 1900, after Boxers had killed Chinese Christians and Westerners, an international relief force was dispatched to quell the attacks).
Boxer Rebellion, an antiforeign uprising in China by members of a secret society beginning in June 1900. The society, originally called the Boxers United in Righteousness, drew their name from their martial rites. Over the course of the uprising, a force of some 140,000 Boxers killed thousands of Chinese Christians and a total of 231 foreigners, including Germany's ambassador

In 1911, Pearl left China to attend Randolph-Macon Woman's College in Lynchburg, Virginia, US, graduating Phi Beta Kappa in 1914 and a member of Kappa Delta Sorority. From 1914 to 1933, she served as a Presbyterian missionary, but her views later became highly controversial in the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy, leading to her resignation.

In 1914, Pearl returned to China. She married an agricultural economist, John Lossing Buck (hereafter in this article Pearl Buck is referred to simply as 'Buck'), on May 13, 1917, and they moved to Suzhou, Anhui Province, a small town on the Huai River (not to be confused with the better-known Suzhou in Jiangsu Province). This region she describes in her books The Good Earth and Sons.

From 1920 to 1933, the Bucks made their home in Nanking (Nanjing), on the campus of Nanjing University, where both had teaching positions. Buck taught English literature at the private, church-run University of Nanking, and at the National Central University, (merged with Nanjing University, in 1952 and 1949 respectively). In 1920, the Bucks had a daughter, Carol, afflicted with phenylketonuria. In 1921, Buck's mother died and shortly afterward her father moved in.

In 1924, they left China for John Buck's year of sabbatical and returned to the United States for a short time, during which Pearl Buck earned her Masters degree from Cornell University. In 1925, the Bucks adopted Janice (later surnamed Walsh). That autumn, they returned to China.[5]

The tragedies and dislocations that Buck suffered in the 1920s reached a climax in March 1927, during the "Nanking Incident." In a confused battle involving elements of Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist troops, Communist forces, and assorted warlords, several Westerners were murdered.

Since her father Absalom was a missionary, the family decided to stay in Nanjing until the battle reached the city. When violence broke out, a poor Chinese family allowed them to hide in their hut while the family house was looted. The family spent a day terrified and in hiding, after which they were rescued by American gunboats.

They traveled to Shanghai and then sailed to Japan, where they stayed for a year. They later moved back to Nanjing, though conditions remained dangerously unsettled. In 1934, they left China permanently.

In 1935 the Bucks were divorced. Richard Walsh, president of the John Day Company and Pearl Buck's publisher, became her second husband. Walsh offered her advice and affection which, her biographer concludes, "helped make Pearl's prodigious activity possible." The couple lived in Pennsylvania until his death in 1960.[7]

During the Cultural Revolution, Buck, as a preeminent American writer of Chinese peasant life, was denounced as an "American cultural imperialist." Buck was "heartbroken" when Madame Mao and high-level Chinese officials prevented her from visiting China with Richard Nixon in 1972.

Pearl S. Buck died of lung cancer on March 6, 1973, in Danby, Vermont and was interred in Green Hills Farm in Perkasie, Pennsylvania. She designed her own tombstone. The grave marker is inscribed with Chinese characters representing the name Pearl Sydenstricker.]

Buck was highly committed to a range of issues that were largely ignored by her generation. Many of her life experiences and political views are described in her novels, short stories, fiction, children's stories, and the biographies of her parents entitled Fighting Angel (on Absalom) and The Exile (on Carrie). She wrote on a diverse variety of topics including women's rights, Asian cultures, immigration, adoption, missionary work, and war.
In 1949, outraged that existing adoption services considered Asian and mixed-race children unadoptable, Buck established Welcome House, Inc., the first international, interracial adoption agency. In nearly five decades of work, Welcome House has placed over five thousand children. In 1964, to support children who were not eligible for adoption, Buck established the Pearl S. Buck Foundation (now called Pearl S. Buck International) to "address poverty and discrimination faced by children in Asian countries." In 1965, she opened the Opportunity Center and Orphanage in South Korea, and later offices were opened in Thailand, the Philippines, and Vietnam. When establishing Opportunity House, Buck said, "The purpose... is to publicize and eliminate injustices and prejudices suffered by children, who, because of their birth, are not permitted to enjoy the educational, social, economic and civil privileges normally accorded to children."

Frans Eemil Sillanpää pronunciation (help·info)) (16 September 1888 – 3 June 1964) was one of the most famous Finnish writers.
He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1939 "for his deep understanding of his country's peasantry and the exquisite art with which he has portrayed their way of life and their relationship with Nature."

Frans Eemil Sillanpää was born into a peasant family in Hämeenkyrö. Although his parents were poor, they managed to send him to school in Tampere.

In 1908 he moved to Helsinki to study medicine. Here his acquaintances included the painters Eero Järnefelt and Pekka Halonen, composer Jean Sibelius and author Juhani Aho.

In 1913 Sillanpää moved from Helsinki to his old home village and devoted himself to writing.

He won international fame for his novel Nuorena nukkunut (The Maid Silja/Fallen Asleep While Young) in 1931.

The asteroid 1446 Sillanpää, discovered by the renowned Finnish astronomer and physicist Yrjö Väisälä, was named after him.

Frans Eemil Sillanpää was born on the 16th of September, 1888, at Ylä-Satakunta in the Hämeenkyrö Parish of Finland on a desolate croft of the same name. The cottage had been built by his parents, his father Frans Henrik Henriksson, who had moved there some ten years before from Kauvatsa in the Kumo Valley, and his mother, Loviisa Vilhelmiina Iisaksdotter, whose family had lived in the Hämeenkyrö Parish from times immemorial.

Sillanpää's parents had experienced all the trials and tribulations common to generations of settlers in those parts of Finland. Frosts had killed their seeds, farm animals had perished, and the farmer's children, too, had died, until only Frans Eemil, the youngest of the offspring, was left.

There was only a mobile school for the farm children, and it was purely by accident - young Sillanpää's life was to abound in accidents - that the crofter's son, who was regarded as a bright lad, came to attend a regular school where he displayed a real aptitude for learning. Some idealists decided that nothing less than a secondary school at Tampere would do and, after giving the matter some thought, old Sillanpää consented to send his son away. For five years, Sillanpää's parents pinched and scraped to keep their son in school, after which he supported himself for another three years and, in 1908, matriculated with good marks. This was a time in Finland when a promising young man could study almost indefinitely on borrowed money, and young Sillanpää was not slow to avail himself of this miscarriage of educational zeal. He plunged into learning and his studies were as chaotic as they were long drawn-out. He did, however, choose biology as his basic subject and worked hard in the laboratory, cutting up things, studying them under the microscope, and drawing what he saw until, one fine day, he woke up to find that five years had gone by; his examination day was still far off and the kind old gentlemen who had been lending him money were not prepared to do so any longer. He scraped together enough cash to return to his home, where he found his father and mother poorer than ever. He lived in their hut and shared their meals, which could hardly excite a gourmet's palate.

His student days were over, his amorous escapades a thing of the past, but at least it was easy enough for him to start from nothing. Sillanpää acquired at a nearby village shop some stationary of the type favoured by village lads for private correspondence and wrote a short story, which he sent to the editor of a large city paper without much hope of seeing it published. To use an expression popular in those days, the story must have been written with his heart's blood because, after a very short time, it appeared on the front page of the aforesaid paper and its author received a very handsome letter from the editor's secretary, as well as his fee, which was more than welcome. The story had been published under a pen name but the literary world of Helsinki soon discovered the identity of the author and the erstwhile eternal scholar found himself, to his amazement, receiving letters of extravagant praise. After several more of his stories had been published in the same paper, something very unusual happened. He was approached by a wellknown publisher who asked to be borne in mind should Sillanpää's literary output stretch to a whole book. The publisher went so far as to offer him a reasonable advance to enable him to work in peace.

Yet another wonder - one of a series - occurred at that time. At an unimportant village dance, Sillanpää met a shy seventeen-year-old girl who, insisting that she could not dance, sat far at the back of the dance hall. In spite of her resistance, Sillanpää dragged her out onto the dance floor to discover that she could dance after all, which she proceeded to do with the utmost seriousness and concentration. This was the beginning of a twenty-five-year saga, during which Sigrid Maria (for such was the name of the seventeen-year-old girl) bore Sillanpää eight children, one of whom died. Mrs. Sillanpää died on an April morning in 1939

لا يعرف متى مات والديه لكن واضح ان طفولته كانت كارثية فهو لاب فلاحين ويبدو انهم عانوا الكثير كمهاجرين جدد من الظروف الحياة في فنلدا حيث تعرضوا لخسائر هائلة وحتى ان كل اطفالهم ماتوا الا هذا الابن. علما بأنه انفصل عنهم من اجل الدراسة وهو ما يزال صغير.

مأزوم.

Johannes Vilhelm Jensen (in Denmark always called Johannes V. Jensen; 20 January 1873 – 25 November 1950) was a Danish author, often considered the first great Danish writer of the 20th century. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1944. One of his sisters, Thit Jensen, was also a well-known writer and a very vocal, and occasionally controversial, early feminist.

He was born in Farsø, a village in North Jutland, Denmark, as the son of a veterinary surgeon and he grew up in a rural environment. While studying medicine at the University of Copenhagen he worked as a writer to fund his studies. After 3 years of studying he chose to change careers and devote himself fully to literature.

The first phase of his work as an author was influenced by fin-de-siècle pessimism.

His career began with the publication of Himmerland Stories (1898–1910), comprising a series of tales set in the part of Denmark where he was born. During 1900 and 1901 he wrote his first masterpiece, Kongens Fald (eng. transl. 1933 The Fall of the King), a modern historical novel centred around King Christian II and his characteristically Danish hesitancy and failure to act.
In 1906 Jensen created his greatest literary achievement: the collection of verses Digte 1906 (i.e. Poems 1906), which introduced the prose poem to Danish literature. He also wrote poetry, a few plays, and many essays, chiefly on anthropology and the philosophy of evolution.

He developed his theories of evolution in a cycle of six novels, Den lange rejse (1908–22), translated into English as The Long Journey (1923–24), which was published in a two-volume edition in 1938. This is often considered his main work in prose, a daring and often impressive attempt to create a Darwinian alternative to the Biblical Genesis myth. In this work we see the development of mankind from the Ice Age to the times of Columbus, focusing on pioneering individuals.
Like his compatriot Hans Christian Andersen, he travelled extensively; a trip to the United States inspired a poem of his, "Paa Memphis Station" [At the train station, Memphis, Tennessee], which is well known in Denmark. Walt Whitman was among the writers who influenced Jensen.

For many years he worked in journalism, writing articles and chronicles for the daily press without ever joining the staff of any newspaper.

Jensen was a controversial figure in Danish cultural life. He was a reckless polemicist and his often dubious racial theories have damaged his reputation. However, he never showed any Fascist leanings.
Today Jensen is still considered the father of Danish modernism, particularly in the area of modern poetry with his introduction of the prose poem and his use of a direct and straightforward language. His direct influence was felt as late as the 1960s. Without being a Danish answer to Kipling, Hamsun or Sandburg, he bears comparison to all three authors. He combines the outlook of the regional writer with the view of the modern academic and scientific observer. In 1999 The Fall of the King was acclaimed as the best Danish novel of the 20th century

==
Johannes Vilhelm Jensen was born in the small village of Farsø, Himmerland, in North Jutland. He was the second son of the district veterinary surgeon, Hans Jensen, a descendant on both sides of farmers and craftsmen, and Marie (Kirstine) Jensen. Jensen was taught by his mother until the age of eleven. Under the influence of his father, he developed a fasciation for Darwinism, which became the cornerstone of his thinking. Jensen graduated from the Cathedral School of Viborg in 1893, and subsequently studied medicine at the University of Copenhagen from 1893 to 1898. In 1904 he married Else Marie Ulrik; they had three sons

لا يعرف شيء عن والديه ولا متى ماتا. والدته علمته حتى سن الحادية عشرة. عاش مع عائلته في قرية صغيرة. درس في وقت لاحق في المدرسة.

مجهول الطفولة.

Gabriela Mistral (1889–1957) was the pseudonym of Lucila Godoy Alcayaga, a Chilean poet, educator, diplomat, and feminist who was the first Latin American (and, so far, the only Latin American woman) to win the Nobel Prize in Literature, in 1945. Some central themes in her poems are nature, betrayal, love, a mother's love, sorrow and recovery, travel, and Latin American identity as formed from a mixture of Native American and European influences. Her portrait also appears on the 5,000 Chilean peso bank note.

Early life
Mistral was born in Vicuña, Chile, but was raised in the small Andean village of Montegrande, where she attended the Primary school taught by her older sister, Emelina Molina. She respected her sister greatly, despite the many financial problems that Emelina brought her in later years.

Her father, Juan Gerónimo Godoy Villanueva, was also a schoolteacher. He abandoned the family before she was three years old, and died, long since estranged from the family, in 1911.

Throughout her early years she was never far from poverty. By age fifteen, she was supporting herself and her mother, Petronila Alcayaga, a seamstress, by working as a teacher's aide in the seaside town of Compañia Baja, near La Serena, Chile.

In 1904 Mistral published some early poems, such as Ensoñaciones ("Dreams"), Carta Íntima ("Intimate Letter") and Junto al Mar, in the local newspaper El Coquimbo: Diario Radical, and La Voz de Elqui using a range of pseudonyms and variations on her civil name.
Probably in about 1906, while working as a teacher, Mistral met Romelio Ureta, a railway worker, who killed himself in 1909. The profound effects of death were already in the poet's work; writing about his suicide led the poet to consider death and life more broadly than previous generations of Latin American poets. While Mistral had passionate friendships with various men and women, and these impacted her writings, she was secretive about her emotional life.
An important moment of formal recognition came on December 22, 1914, when Mistral was awarded first prize in a national literary contest Juegos Florales in Santiago(the capital of chile), with the work Sonetos de la Muerte (Sonnets of Death). She had been using the pen name Gabriela Mistral since June 1908 for much of her writing. After winning the Juegos Florales she infrequently used her given name of Lucilla Godoy for her publications. She formed her pseudonym from the two of her favorite poets, Gabriele D'Annunzio and Frédéric Mistral or, as another story has it, from a composite of the Archangel Gabriel and the Mistral wind of Provence.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi...elaMistral.jpg http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.2...gnify-clip.png
Gabriela Mistral during her youth

Mistral's meteoric rise in Chile's national school system plays out against the complex politics of Chile in the first two decades of the 20th century. In her adolescence, the need for teachers was so great, and the number of trained teachers was so small, especially in the rural areas, that anyone who was willing could find work as a teacher. Access to good schools was difficult, however, and the young woman lacked the political and social connections necessary to attend the Normal School: She was turned down, without explanation, in 1907. She later identified the obstacle to her entry as the school's chaplain, Father Ignacio Munizaga, who was aware of her publications in the local newspapers, her advocacy of liberalizing education and giving greater access to the schools to all social classes.
Although her formal education had ended by 1900, she was able to get work as a teacher thanks to her older sister, Emelina, who had likewise begun as a teacher's aide and was responsible for much of the poet's early education. The poet was able to rise from one post to another because of her publications in local and national newspapers and magazines. Her willingness to move was also a factor. Between the years 1906 and 1912 she had taught, successively, in three schools near La Serena, then in Barrancas, then Traiguen in 1910, in Antofagasta, Chile in the desert north, in 1911. By 1912 she had moved to work in a liceo, or high school, in Los Andes, where she stayed for six years and often visited Santiago. In 1918 Pedro Aguirre Cerda, then Minister of Education, and a future president of Chile, promoted her appointment to direct a liceo in Punta Arenas. She moved on to Temuco in 1920, then to Santiago, where in 1921, she defeated a candidate connected with the Radical Party, Josefina Dey del Castillo to be named director of Santiago's Liceo #6, the newest and most prestigious girls' school in Chile. Controversies over the nomination of Gabriela Mistral to the highly coveted post in Santiago were among the factors that made her decide to accept an invitation to work in Mexico in 1922, with that country's Minister of Education, José Vasconcelos. He had her join in the nation's plan to reform libraries and schools, to start a national education system. That year she published Desolación in New York, which further promoted the international acclaim she had already been receiving thanks to her journalism and public speaking. A year later she published Lecturas para Mujeres (Readings for Women), a text in prose and verse that celebrates Latin America from the broad, Americanist perspective developed in the wake of the Mexican Revolution

- انفصل الاب عن العائلة وهي في سن الثالثة وعاشت حياة فقر ومعاناة ومات الاب وهو بعيد عن العائلة في عام 1911 . عاشت حياة يتم اجتمماعي وحياة ازمة يتم فعلي.


يتيمة الاب في سن الثالثة.

Hermann Hesse (German: [ˈhɛɐ̯man ˈhɛsə]; July 2, 1877 – August 9, 1962) was a German-Swiss poet, novelist, and painter. His best-known works include Steppenwolf, Siddhartha, and The Glass Bead Game, each of which explores an individual's search for authenticity, self-knowledge and spirituality. In 1946, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Family background
Hermann Hesse was born on 2 July 1877 in the Black Forest town of Calw in Württemberg, Germany. Both of Hesse's parents served in India at a mission under the auspices of the Basel Mission, a Protestant Christian missionary society. Hesse's mother, Marie Gundert, was born at such a mission in India in 1842.
In describing her own childhood, she said, "A happy child I was not..." As was usual among missionaries at the time, she was left behind in Europe at the age of four when her parents went to India. In her teens she attempted to rebel against her authoritarian father, Hermann Gundert, but finally submitted.[3]

Hesse's father, Johannes Hesse, the son of a doctor, was born in 1847 in the Estonian town of Paide (Weissenstein). In his own way, Dr Hesse was just as tyrannical as Dr Gundert.[

Once Johannes Hesse was married, he moved into his father-in-law's house. Due at least in part to the crowded conditions there, in 1889 he suffered his first bout of deep depression. He continued to have such attacks of "melancholia, weeping and headaches" for the rest of his life.

Since Johannes Hesse belonged to the sizable German minority in that part of the Baltic region, which was then under the rule of the Russian Empire, his son Hermann was at birth both a citizen of the German Empire and of the Russian Empire.Hesse had five siblings, two of whom died in infancy. In 1873, the Hesse family moved to Calw, where his father worked for the Calwer Verlagsverein, a publishing house specializing in theological texts and schoolbooks. Hesse's grandfather Hermann Gundert managed the publishing house at the time, and Johannes Hesse succeeded him in 1893.

Hesse grew up in a Swabian Pietist household, with its strong tendency to insulate believers into small, deeply thoughtful groups. Furthermore, Hesse described his father's Baltic German heritage as "an important and potent fact" of his developing identity. His father, Hesse stated, "always seemed like a very polite, very foreign, lonely, little-understood guest."[7] His father's tales from Estonia instilled a contrasting sense of religion in young Hermann. "[It was] an exceedingly cheerful, and, for all its Christianity, a merry world... We wished for nothing so longingly as to be allowed to see this Estonia ... where life was so paradisiacal, so colorful and happy." Hermann Hesse's sense of estrangement from the Swabian petty bourgeoisie further grew through his relationship with his grandmother Julie Gundert, née Dubois, whose French-Swiss heritage kept her from ever quite fitting in among that milieu.[7]
From early on, Hermann Hesse appeared headstrong and hard for his family to handle. In a letter to her husband Johannes Hesse, Hermann's mother Marie wrote: "The little fellow has a life in him, an unbelievable strength, a powerful will, and, for his four years of age, a truly astonishing mind. How can he express all that? It truly gnaws at my life, this internal fighting against his tyrannical temperament, his passionate turbulence [...] God must shape this proud spirit, then it will become something noble and magnificent – but I shudder to think what this young and passionate person might become should his upbringing be false or weak."[8]

Hesse showed signs of serious depression as early as his first year at school.[9]
In his juvenilia collection Gerbersau, Hesse vividly describes experiences and anecdotes from his childhood and youth in Calw: the atmosphere and adventures by the river, the bridge, the chapel, the houses leaning closely together, hidden nooks and crannies, as well as the inhabitants with their admirable qualities, their oddities, and their idiosyncrasies. The fictional town of Gerbersau is pseudonymous for Calw, imitating the real name of a nearby town called Hirsau. It is derived from the German words gerber, meaning "tanner," and aue, meaning "meadow."[ Calw had a centuries-old leather-working industry, and during Hesse's childhood the tanneries' influence on the town was still very much in evidence. Hesse's favorite place in Calw was the St. Nicholas-Bridge (Nikolausbrücke), which is why the Hesse monument by the sculptor Kurt Tassotti was erected there in 2002.
Hermann Hesse's grandfather Hermann Gundert, a doctor of philosophy and fluent in multiple languages, encouraged the boy to read widely, giving him access to his library, which was filled with the works of world literature. All this instilled a sense in Hermann Hesse that he was a citizen of the world. His family background became, he noted, "the basis of an isolation and a resistance to any sort of nationalism that so defined my life."[7]
Young Hesse shared a love of music with his mother. Both music and poetry were important in his family. His mother wrote poetry, and his father was known for his use of language in both his sermons and the writing of religious tracts. His first role model for becoming an artist was his half-brother, Theo, who rebelled against the family by entering a music conservatory in 1885.[12] Hesse showed a precocious ability to rhyme, and by 1889–90 had decided that he wanted to be a writer.[
==
spent most of my school years in boarding schools in Wuerttemberg and some time in the theological seminary of the monastery at Maulbronn. I was a good learner, good at Latin though only fair at Greek, but I was not a very manageable boy, and it was only with difficulty that I fitted into the framework of a pietist education that aimed at subduing and breaking the individual personality. From the age of twelve I wanted to be a poet, and since there was no normal or official road, I had a hard time deciding what to do after leaving school. I left the seminary and grammar school, became an apprentice to a mechanic, and at the age of nineteen I worked in book and antique shops in Tübingen and Basle. Late in 1899 a tiny volume of my poems appeared in print, followed by other small publications that remained equally unnoticed, until in 1904 the novel Peter Camenzind, written in Basle and set in Switzerland, had a quick success. I gave up selling books, married a woman from Basle, the mother of my sons, and moved to the country. At that time a rural life, far from the cities and civilization, was my aim. Since then I have always lived in the country, first, until 1912, in Gaienhofen on Lake Constance, later near Bern, and finally in Montagnola near Lugano, where I am still living.

André Paul Guillaume Gide (French pronunciation: 22 November 1869 – 19 February 1951) was a French author and winner of the Nobel Prize in literature in 1947. Gide's career ranged from its beginnings in the symbolist movement, to the advent of anticolonialism between the two World Wars.
Known for his fiction as well as his autobiographical works, Gide exposes to public view the conflict and eventual reconciliation between the two sides of his personality, split apart by a straitlaced education and a narrow social moralism. Gide's work can be seen as an investigation of freedom and empowerment in the face of moralistic and puritanical constraints, and gravitates around his continuous effort to achieve intellectual honesty. His self-exploratory texts reflect his search of how to be fully oneself, even to the point of owning one's sexual nature, without at the same time betraying one's values. His political activity is informed by the same ethos, as suggested by his repudiation of communism after his 1936 voyage to the USSR.

Gide was born in Paris on 22 November 1869, into a middle-class Protestant family. His father was a Paris University professor of law and died in 1880. His uncle was the political economist Charles Gide.
Gide was brought up in isolated conditions in Normandy and became a prolific writer at an early age, publishing his first novel, The Notebooks of Andre Walter (French: Les Cahiers d'André Walter), in 1891.
In 1893 and 1894, Gide traveled in Northern Africa, and it was there that he came to accept his attraction to boys]
He befriended Oscar Wilde in Paris, and in 1895 Gide and Wilde met in Algiers. There, Wilde had the impression that he had introduced Gide to homosexuality, but, in fact, Gide had already discovered this on his own.
[
The middle years

In 1895, after his mother's death, he married his cousin Madeleine Rondeaux, but the marriage remained unconsummated. In 1896, he became mayor of La Roque-Baignard, a commune in Normandy.
In 1901, Gide rented the property Maderia in St. Brelade's Bay and lived there while residing in Jersey. This period, 1901–07, is commonly seen as a period of apathy and unsettlement in his life.
In 1908, Gide helped found the literary magazine Nouvelle Revue Française (The New French Review).[5] In 1916, Marc Allégret, only 15 years old, became his lover. Marc was the son of Elie Allégret, best man at Gide's wedding. Of Allégret's five children, André Gide adopted Marc. The two fled to London, in retribution for which his wife burned all his correspondence, "the best part of myself," as he was later to comment. In 1918, he met Dorothy Bussy, who was his friend for over thirty years and who would translate many of his works into English.
In the 1920s, Gide became an inspiration for writers such as Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre. In 1923, he published a book on Fyodor Dostoyevsky; however, when he defended pederasty in the public edition of Corydon (1924) he received widespread condemnation. He later considered this his most important work.
In 1923, he sired a daughter, Catherine, by Elisabeth van Rysselberghe, a woman who was much younger than him. He had known her for a long time, as she was the daughter of his closest female friend, Maria Monnom, the wife of his friend, the Belgian neo-impressionist painter Théo van Rysselberghe. This would cause the only crisis in the long-standing relationship between Allégret and Gide and damaged the relation with Van Rysselberghe. This was possibly Gide's only sexual liaison with a woman and it was brief in the extreme, but his daughter Catherine became his only descendant by blood. He liked to call Elisabeth "La Dame Blanche" ("The White Lady"). Elisabeth eventually left her husband to move to Paris and manage the practical aspects of Gide's life (they had adjoining apartments built for each of them on the rue Vavin). She worshipped him, but evidently they no longer had a sexual relationship. Gide's legal wife, Madeleine, died in 1938. Later he used the background of his unconsummated marriage in his novel Et Nunc Manet in Te.
In 1924, he published an autobiography, Unless the seed dies (French: Si le grain ne meurt).
After 1925, he began to demand more humane conditions for criminals.

[Africa

From July 1926 to May 1927, he travelled through the French Equatorial Africa colony with his lover Marc Allégret. Gide went successively to Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo), Oubangui-Chari (now the Central African Republic), briefly to Chad and then to Cameroun before returning to France.

- يتيم الاب في سن الـ 11
- ماتت امه في سن الـ 25
عاش حاية كارثية بسبب موت الاب مبكرا.

يتيم الاب.

توماس ستيرنز إليوت

Thomas Stearns Eliot OM (September 26, 1888 – January 4, 1965) was a publisher, playwright, literary and social critic and "arguably the most important English-language poet of the 20th century." Although he was born an American, he moved to the United Kingdom in 1914 (at age 25) and was naturalised as a British subject in 1927 at age 39.
The poem that made his name, The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock—started in 1910 and published in Chicago in 1915—is seen as a masterpiece of the Modernist movement, and was followed by some of the best-known poems in the English language, including Gerontion (1920), The Waste Land (1922), The Hollow Men (1925), Ash Wednesday (1930), and Four Quartets (1945).[ He is also known for his seven plays, particularly Murder in the Cathedral (1935). He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948.

Early life and education
Eliot was born into the Eliot family, a middle class family originally from New England, who had moved to St. Louis, Missouri. His father, Henry Ware Eliot (1843–1919), was a successful businessman, president and treasurer of the Hydraulic-Press Brick Company in St. Louis.

His mother, Charlotte Champe Stearns (1843–1929), wrote poetry and was a social worker, a new profession in the early twentieth century.
-Eliot was the last of six surviving children; his parents were both 44 years old when he was born.
His four sisters were between eleven and nineteen years older;
his brother was eight years older. Known to family and friends as Tom, he was the namesake of his maternal grandfather Thomas Stearns.

Several factors are responsible for Eliot's infatuation with literature during his childhood.
First, Eliot had to overcome physical limitations as a child. Struggling from a congenital double hernia, a condition in which one’s intestines jut through the bowel wall and causes an abdominal rupture, Eliot was unable to participate in many physical activities and thus was prevented from interacting socially with his peers.

As Eliot was often isolated, his love of literature developed. Once he learned to read, the young boy immediately became obsessed with books and was completely absorbed in tales depicting savages, the Wild West, or Mark Twain’s thrill-seeking Tom Sawyer. In his memoir of T.S. Eliot, Eliot’s friend Robert Sencourt comments that young Eliot “would often curl up in the window-seat behind an enormous book, setting the drug of dreams against the pain of living.” Secondly, Eliot also credited his hometown with seeding his literary vision: "It is self-evident that St. Louis affected me more deeply than any other environment has ever done. I feel that there is something in having passed one's childhood beside the big river, which is incommunicable to those people who have not. I consider myself fortunate to have been born here, rather than in Boston, or New York, or London." Thus, from the onset, literature was an essential part of Eliot's childhood and both his disability and location influenced him.

From 1898 to 1905, Eliot attended Smith Academy, where his studies included Latin, Ancient Greek, French, and German. He began to write poetry when he was fourteen under the influence of Edward Fitzgerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, a translation of the poetry of Omar Khayyam. He said the results were gloomy and despairing, and he destroyed them. His first poem published, "A Fable For Feasters," was written as a school exercise and was published in the Smith Academy Record in February 1905. Also published there in April 1905 was his oldest surviving poem in manuscript, an untitled lyric, later revised and reprinted as "Song" in The Harvard Advocate, Harvard University's student magazine.[12] He also published three short stories in 1905, "Birds of Prey," "A Tale of a Whale" and "The Man Who Was King." The last mentioned story significantly reflects his exploration of Igorot Village while visiting the 1904 World's Fair of St. Louis.[13][14] Such a link with primitive people importantly antedates his anthropological studies at Harvard.[15]
Following graduation, Eliot attended Milton Academy in Massachusetts for a preparatory year, where he met Scofield Thayer, who would later publish The Waste Land. He studied philosophy at Harvard College from 1906 to 1909, earning his bachelor's degree after three years, instead of the usual four.[4] Frank Kermode writes that the most important moment of Eliot's undergraduate career was in 1908, when he discovered Arthur Symons's The Symbolist Movement in Literature (1899). This introduced him to Jules Laforgue, Arthur Rimbaud, and Paul Verlaine. Without Verlaine, Eliot wrote, he might never have heard of Tristan Corbière and his book Les amours jaunes, a work that affected the course of Eliot's life. The Harvard Advocate published some of his poems, and he became lifelong friends with Conrad Aiken, the American novelist.
After working as a philosophy assistant at Harvard from 1909 to 1910, Eliot moved to Paris, where from 1910 to 1911, he studied philosophy at the Sorbonne. He attended lectures by Henri Bergson and read poetry with Alain-Fournier.[4][16] From 1911 to 1914, he was back at Harvard studying Indian philosophy and Sanskrit.[4][17] Eliot was awarded a scholarship to Merton College, Oxford in 1914. He first visited Marburg, Germany, where he planned to take a summer program, but when the First World War broke out, he went to Oxford instead. At the time, so many American students attended Merton that the Junior Common Room proposed a motion "that this society abhors the Americanization of Oxford." It was defeated by two votes, after Eliot reminded the students how much they owed American culture.[18]
Eliot wrote to Conrad Aiken on New Year's Eve 1914: "I hate university towns and university people, who are the same everywhere, with pregnant wives, sprawling children, many books and hideous pictures on the walls ... Oxford is very pretty, but I don't like to be dead."[18] Escaping Oxford, Eliot actually spent much of his time in London. This city had a monumental and life-altering impact on Eliot for multiple reasons, the most significant of which was his introduction to the acclaimed literary figure Ezra Pound. A connection through Aiken resulted in an arranged meeting and on September 22, 1914, Eliot paid a visit to Pound’s flat. Pound instantly deemed Eliot “worth watching” and was imperative to Eliot’s beginning career as a poet as he is credited with promoting Eliot through social events and literary gatherings. Thus, according to biographer John Worthen, during his time in England Eliot “was seeing as little of Oxford as possible. He was instead spending long periods of time in London, in the company of Ezra Pound and "some of the modern artists whom the war has so far spared . . . . It was Pound who helped most, introducing him everywhere.”[19] In the end, Eliot did not settle at Merton, and left after a year. In 1915 he taught English at Birkbeck, University of London.
By 1916, he had completed a doctoral dissertation for Harvard on Knowledge and Experience in the Philosophy of F. H. Bradley, but he failed to return for the viva voce exam.[4][20]
[edit] Marriage

In a letter to Aiken late in December, 1914, Eliot, aged 26, wrote, "I am very dependent upon women (I mean female society)." Less than four months later, Thayer introduced Eliot to Vivienne Haigh-Wood, a Cambridge governess. They were married at Hampstead Register Office on June 26, 1915.[After a short visit alone to his family in the United States, Eliot returned to London and took several teaching jobs, such as lecturing at Birkbeck College, University of London. The philosopher Bertrand Russell took an interest in Vivienne while the newlyweds stayed in his flat. Some scholars have suggested that she and Russell had an affair, but the allegations were never confirmed.

The marriage was markedly unhappy, in part because of Vivienne's health issues. In a letter addressed to Ezra Pound, she covers an extensive list of her symptoms, which included a habitually high temperature, fatigue, insomnia, migraines, and colitis. This, coupled with apparent mental instability, meant that she was often sent away by Eliot and her doctors for extended periods of time in the hope of improving her health, and as time went on, he became increasingly more detached from her. Their relationship became the subject of a 1984 play Tom and Viv, which in 1994 was adapted as a film.
In a private paper written in his sixties, Eliot confessed: "I came to persuade myself that I was in love with Vivienne simply because I wanted to burn my boats and commit myself to staying in England. And she persuaded herself (also under the influence of [Ezra] Pound) that she would save the poet by keeping him in England. To her, the marriage brought no happiness. To me, it brought the state of mind out of which came The Waste Land.

ويليام كتبيرت فوكنر

William Cuthbert Faulkner (born Falkner, September 25, 1897 – July 6, 1962) was a writer and Nobel Prize laureate from Oxford, Mississippi.

Biography
William Cuthbert Faulkner was born in New Albany, Mississippi, the first of four sons to Murry Cuthbert Falkner (August 17, 1870 – August 7, 1932) and Maud Butler (November 27, 1871 – October 19, 1960).[3]ad three younger brothers: Murry Charles "Jack" Faulkner (June 26, 1899 – December 24, 1975), author John Faulkner (September 24, 1901 – March 28, 1963) and Dean Swift Faulkner (August 15, 1907 – November 10, 1935).

Faulkner was born and raised in, and heavily influenced by, his
home state of Mississippi, as well as by the history and culture of the American South altogether. Soon after Faulkner's first birthday, his family moved to Ripley, Mississippi from New Albany. Here, Murry worked as the treasurer for the family's Gulf & Chicago Railroad Company, a business Murry had been drawn to from an early age. Murry had hoped to inherit the railroad from his father, John Wesley Thompson Falkner. However, John had little confidence in Murry's ability to run a business and sold the railroad for $75,000. Following the sale of the railroad business, Murry became disappointed and planned a new start for his family by moving to Texas and becoming a rancher. Maud, however, disagreed with this proposition, and it was decided that they would move to Oxford, Mississippi, where Murry's father owned several businesses, making it easy for Murry to find work.[4]Thus, only four days prior to William's fifth birthday, the Falkner family settled in Oxford on September 21, 1902,[ where he resided on and off for the remainder of his life.

His family, particularly his mother Maud, his maternal grandmother Lelia Butler, and Caroline Barr (the black woman who raised him from infancy) crucially influenced the development of Faulkner’s artistic imagination.

Both his mother and grandmother were great readers and also painters and photographers, educating him in visual language. While Murry enjoyed the outdoors and taught his sons to hunt, track, and fish, Maud valued education and took pleasure in reading and going to church. She taught her sons to read before sending them to public school and exposed them to classics such as Charles Dickens and Grimms' Fairy Tales.[4] Faulkner's lifelong education by Callie Barr is central to his novels' preoccupations with the politics of sexuality and race.[6]
As a schoolchild, Faulkner had much success early on. He excelled in the first grade, skipped the second, and continued doing well through the third and fourth grades. However, beginning somewhere in the fourth and fifth grades of his schooling, Faulkner became a much more quiet and withdrawn child.

He began to play hooky occasionally and became somewhat indifferent to his schoolwork, even though he began to study the history of Mississippi on his own time in the seventh grade. The decline of his performance in school continued and Faulkner wound up repeating the eleventh, and then final grade, and never graduating from high school.[4]
Faulkner also spent much of his boyhood listening to stories told to him by his elders. These included war stories shared by the old men of Oxford and stories told by Mammy Callie of the Civil War, slavery, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Falkner family. Faulkner's grandfather would also tell him of the exploits of William's great-grandfather, after whom he was named, William Clark Falkner, who was a successful businessman, writer, and a Civil War hero. Telling stories about William Clark Falkner, whom the family called "Old Colonel," had already become something of a family pastime when Faulkner was a boy.[4] According to one of Faulkner's biographers, by the time William was born, his great-grandfather had "been enshrined long since as a household deity."[7]
In adolescence, Faulkner began writing poetry almost exclusively. He did not write his first novel until 1925. His literary influences are deep and wide. He once stated that he modeled his early writing on the Romantic era in late 18th century and early 19th century England.[3] He attended the University of Mississippi (Ole Miss) in Oxford, and was a member of Sigma Alpha Epsilon social fraternity. He enrolled at Ole Miss in 1919, and attended three semesters before dropping out in November 1920.[8] William was able to attend classes at the university due to his father having a job there as a business manager. He skipped classes often and received a "D" grade in English. However, some of his poems were published in campus journals.[9][10]
When he was seventeen, Faulkner met Philip Stone, who would become an important early influence on his writing. Stone was then four years from his senior and came from one of Oxford's older families. He was passionate about literature and had already earned bachelor's degrees from Yale and the University of Mississippi. At the University of Mississippi, Faulkner joined the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity. There he was supported in his dream to become a writer. Stone read and was impressed by some of Faulkner's early poetry and was one of the first to discover Faulkner's talent and artistic potential. Stone became a literary mentor to the young Faulkner, introducing him to writers such as James Joyce, who would come to have an influence on Faulkner's own writing. In his early twenties, Faulkner would give poems and short stories he had written to Stone, in hopes of them being published. Stone would in turn send these to publishers, but they were uniformly rejected.[9]
The younger Faulkner was greatly influenced by the history of his family and the region in which he lived. Mississippi marked his sense of humor, his sense of the tragic position of Black and White Americans, his characterization of Southern characters, and his timeless themes, including fiercely intelligent people dwelling behind the façades of good old boys and simpletons. Unable to join the United States Army due to his height (he was 5' 5½"), Faulkner enlisted in a reservist unit of the British Armed Forces. Despite his claims to have done so, records now available to the public indicate that Faulkner was never actually a member of the British Royal Flying Corps and never saw service during the First World War.[11]
In 1918, Faulkner himself made the change to his surname from the original "Falkner." However, according to one story, a careless typesetter simply made an error. When the misprint appeared on the title page of his first book, Faulkner was asked whether he wanted a change. He supposedly replied, "Either way suits me." Although Faulkner is heavily identified with Mississippi, he was residing in New Orleans, Louisiana in 1925 when he wrote his first novel, Soldiers' Pay,[3] after being directly influenced by Sherwood Anderson to attempt fiction writing. Anderson also assisted in the publication of Soldier's Pay and of Mosquitoes, Faulkner's second novel, by recommending them both to his own publisher.[13] The miniature house at 624 Pirate's Alley, just around the corner from St. Louis Cathedral in New Orleans is now the premises of Faulkner House Books, where it also serves as the headquarters of the Pirate's Alley Faulkner Society.[14]
During the summer of 1927, Faulkner wrote his first novel set in his fictional Yoknapatawpha County, entitled Flags in the Dust. This novel drew heavily on the traditions and history of the South, in which Faulkner had been engrossed in his youth. He was very proud of his novel upon its completion and he believed it to be a significant improvement from his previous two novels. However, when submitted for publication, it was rejected by the publishers Boni & Liveright. This came as a huge shock to Faulkner, but he eventually allowed his literary agent, Ben Wasson to significantly edit the text and the novel was finally published in 1928 as Sartoris.
In the fall of 1928, when Faulkner was thirty years old, he began working on The Sound and the Fury. He started by writing three short stories about a group of children with the last name Compson, but Faulkner soon began to feel that the characters he had created would be better suited for a full-length novel. Perhaps as a result of his disappointment in the initial rejection of Flags in the Dust, Faulkner had now become indifferent to his publishers and wrote this novel in a much more experimental style. In describing his writing process for this work, Faulkner would later say, "One day I seemed to shut the door between me and all publisher’s addresses and book lists. I said to myself, Now I can write."[15] After its completion, Faulkner this time insisted that Ben Wasson not do any editing or add any punctuation for clarity.[10]
In 1929 Faulkner married Estelle Oldham. Estelle brought with her two children from her previous marriage to Cornell Franklin and Faulkner intended to support his new family as a writer. Beginning in 1930, Faulkner sent out some of his short stories to various national magazines. Several of his stories were published and this brought him enough income to buy a house in Oxford for his family to live in, which he named "Rowan Oak."[16]

By 1932, however, Faulkner was in a much less secure financial position. He had asked his agent, Ben Wasson to sell the serialization rights for his newly completed novel, Light in August, to a magazine for $5,000, but no magazine accepted the offer. Then, MGM Studios offered Faulkner work as a screenwriter in Hollywood. While Faulkner was not a fan of film, he needed the money, and so he accepted the job offer and arrived in Culver City California in May 1932. There he worked with director Howard Hawks, with whom he got along well, as they both enjoyed drinking and hunting. Howard Hawks' brother William Hawks became Faulkner's Hollywood agent. Faulkner would continue to find work as a screenwriter for years to come throughout the 1930s and 1940s.[13][16]
Faulkner served as Writer-in-Residence at the University of Virginia at Charlottesville from February to June 1957 and again in 1958.[17] He suffered serious injuries in a horse-riding accident in 1959, and died from a myocardial infarction, aged 64, on July 6, 1962, at Wright's Sanitorium in Byhalia, Mississippi.[3][5] He is buried along with his family in St. Peter's Cemetery in Oxford, along with a family friend with the mysterious initials E.T.[18]

Personal life
As a teenager in Oxford, Faulkner dated Estelle Oldham, the popular daughter of Major Lemuel and Lida Oldham, and believed he would some day marry her. However, Estelle dated other boys during their romance, and one of them, Cornell Franklin, ended up proposing marriage to her before Faulkner did, in 1918. Estelle's parents insisted she marry Cornell, as he was an Ole Miss law graduate, had recently been commissioned as a major in the Hawaiian Territorial Forces, and came from a respectable family with which they were old friends. Estelle's marriage to Franklin fell apart ten years later, and she was divorced in April 1929.[21] Faulkner married Estelle in June 1929 at College Hill Presbyterian Church just outside of Oxford, Mississippi.[22] They honeymooned on the Mississippi Gulf Coast at Pascagoula, then returned to Oxford, first living with relatives while they searched for a home of their own to purchase. In 1930 Faulkner purchased the antebellum home Rowan Oak, known at that time as "The Shegog Place" from Irish planter Robert Shegog. He and his daughter, Jill, lived at Rowan Oak until after her mother's death.

The property was sold to the University of Mississippi in 1972. The house and furnishings are maintained much as they were in Faulkner's day. Faulkner's scribblings are still preserved on the wall there, including the day-by-day outline covering an entire week that he wrote out on the walls of his small study to help him keep track of the plot twists in the novel A Fable.
The quality and quantity of Faulkner's literary output were achieved despite a lifelong drinking problem. Since he rarely drank while writing, instead preferring to binge after a project's completion, it is generally agreed that his alcohol use was an escape from the pressures of everyday life and unrelated to his creativity.[ Whatever the source of his addiction, it undoubtedly weakened his health.
Faulkner died on July 6, 1962

مأزوم بسبب قصره ربما ويظهر انه كان منعزلا وهو طالب ورغم تفوقه المبكر لكنه ما لبث ان تراجع في تحصيله الدراسي ولم يتخرج من الثانوية. من عناصر التأثير المهمة عليه تنقلاته وسكن بقرب النهر والمربية التي ربته وهي امرأة من اصول افريقية.

مأزوم.

برتراند أرثر ويليام راسل

Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic.

Russell led the British "revolt against idealism" in the early 20th century. He is considered one of the founders of analytic philosophy along with his predecessor Gottlob Frege and his protégé Ludwig Wittgenstein. He is widely held to be one of the 20th century's premier logicians. He co-authored, with A. N. Whitehead, Principia Mathematica, an attempt to ground mathematics on logic. His philosophical essay "On Denoting" has been considered a "paradigm of philosophy." Russell was a prominent anti-war activist; he championed anti-imperialism and went to prison for his pacifism during World War I. Later, he campaigned against Adolf Hitler, then criticised Stalinist totalitarianism, attacked the United States of America's involvement in the Vietnam War, and was an outspoken proponent of nuclear disarmament. In 1950 Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, "in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought.

Ancestry
Bertrand Russell was born on 18 May 1872 at Ravenscroft, Trellech, Monmouthshire, Wales, into an influential and liberal family of the British aristocracy. His paternal grandfather, John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, was the third son of John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford, and had twice been asked by Queen Victoria to form a government, serving her as Prime Minister in the 1840s and 1860s.[12]

The Russells had been prominent in England for several centuries before this, coming to power and the peerage with the rise of the Tudor dynasty. They established themselves as one of Britain's leading Whig families, and participated in every great political event from the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536–40 to the Glorious Revolution in 1688–89 and the Great Reform Act in 1832.[12]Russell's mother, Katharine Louisa (1844–1874), was the daughter of Edward Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley of Alderley, and the sister of Rosalind Howard, Countess of Carlisle.[9] Kate and Rosalind's mother was one of the founders of Girton College, Cambridge.
Russell's parents were radical for their times. Russell's father, Viscount Amberley, was an atheist and consented to his wife's affair with their children's tutor, the biologist Douglas Spalding. Both were early advocates of birth control at a time when this was considered scandalous. John Russell's atheism was evident when he asked the philosopher John Stuart Mill to act as Russell's secular godfather. Mill died the year after Russell's birth, but his writings had a great effect on Russell's life.

Russell had two siblings: Frank (nearly seven years older than Bertrand), and Rachel (four years older). In June 1874 Russell's mother died of diphtheria, followed shortly by Rachel's death.

In January 1876, his father died of bronchitis following a long period of depression. Frank and Bertrand were placed in the care of their staunchly Victorian paternal grandparents, who lived at Pembroke Lodge in Richmond Park. His grandfather, former Prime MinisterJohn Russell, died in 1878, and was remembered by Russell as a kindly old man in a wheelchair. His grandmother, the Countess Russell (née Lady Frances Elliot), was the dominant family figure for the rest of Russell's childhood and youth.[]

The countess was from a Scottish Presbyterian family, and successfully petitioned the Court of Chancery to set aside a provision in Amberley's will requiring the children to be raised as agnostics. Despite her religious conservatism, she held progressive views in other areas (accepting Darwinism and supporting Irish Home Rule), and her influence on Bertrand Russell's outlook on social justice and standing up for principle remained with him throughout his life—her favourite Bible verse, 'Thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil' (Exodus 23:2), became his motto. The atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge was one of frequent prayer, emotional repression, and formality; Frank reacted to this with open rebellion, but the young Bertrand learned to hide his feelings.

Russell's adolescence was very lonely, and he often contemplated suicide. He remarked in his autobiography that his keenest interests were in religion and mathematics, and that only the wish to know more mathematics kept him from suicide.[17] He was educated at home by a series of tutors. His brother Frank introduced him to the work of Euclid, which transformed Russell's life.

طفولة كارثية بكل ما في الكلمة من معنى.
- الام ماتت وعمره سنتان ( 2 ).
- الاب مات وعمره اربع سنوات ( 4 ) بعد اصابته بالكآبة لمدة طويلة.
- الجد مات وهو في وعمره 6 سنوات.
- قضى فترة شبابه في وحدة ولطالما فكر في الانتحار.
ملاحظة: لا عجب اذا ان يكون (فيلسوف وعالم منطق ورياضي ومؤرخ وناقد اجتماعي واديب وداعية سلام ومناضل ضد الامبرالية ةالسلاح النووي الخ.مثل قيادة الثورة ضد المثالية ) وقد تعرض لكل تلك المصائب والصدمات في طفولتة المبكرة). فهو على شاكلة نيوتن متعدد المواهب وفي ذلك ما يؤكد ان العلاقة بين المصائب والمآسي والعبقرية علاقة طردية.

Pär Fabian Lagerkvist (23 May 1891 – 11 July 1974) was a Swedish author who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1951.
Lagerkvist wrote poems, plays, novels, stories, and essays of considerable expressive power and influence from his early 20s to his late 70s. Among his central themes was the fundamental question of good and evil, which he examined through such figures as the man who was freed instead of Jesus, Barabbas, and the wandering Jew Ahasuerus. As a moralist, he used religious motifs and figures from the Christian tradition without following the doctrines of the church.

Biography and works
Lagerkvist was born in Växjö (Småland).
Lagerkvist received a traditional religious education - he would say, with little exaggeration, that he "had had the good fortune to grow up in a home where the only books known were the Bible and the Book of Hymns". In his teens he broke away from Christian beliefs, but unlike many other writers and thinkers in his generation he did not become vehemently critical of religious beliefs as such. Though he was politically a socialist for most of his life, he never indulged in the idea that "religion is the opium of the people". Much of his writing is informed by a lifelong interest in man and his symbols and gods and in the position of Man (both as individual and mankind) in a world where the Divine is no longer present, no longer speaking.
In his early years Lagerkvist supported modernist and aesthetically radical views, as shown by his manifesto Ordkonst och bildkonst (word art and picture art) (1913) and the plays Den Svåra Stunden ("The Difficult Hour").
One of the author's earliest works is Ångest (Anguish, 1916), a violent and disillusioned collection of poems.
His anguish was derived from his fear of death, the World War, and personal crisis.
He tried to explore how a person can find a meaningful life in a world where a war can kill millions for very little reason. "Anguish, anguish is my heritage / the wound of my throat / the cry of my heart in the world."
("Anguish", 1916.) "Love is nothing. Anguish is everything / the anguish of living." ("Love is nothing", 1916.) This pessimism, however, slowly faded, as testified by his subsequent works, Det eviga leendet (The Eternal Smile, 1920), the autobiographical novel Gäst hos verkligheten (Guest of Reality, 1925) and the prose monologue Det besegrade livet (The defeated Life, 1927), in which the faith in man is predominant. From The Eternal Smile on, his style largely abandoned the expressionist pathos and brusque effects of his early works and there was a strong striving for simplicity, classical precision and clean telling, sometimes appearing close to naivism. The content, however, was never truly naive. A Swedish critic remarked that "Lagerkvist and John the Evangelist are two masters at expressing profound things with a highly restricted choice of words".
Ten years after Ångest, Lagerkvist married for the second time, a union which was to provide a pillar of safety in his life until the death of his wife forty years later. Hjärtats sånger (Songs of the Heart) (1926) appeared at this time, bearing witness to his pride and love for his consort.. This collection is much less desperate in its tone than Ångest, and establlished him as one of the foremost Swedish poets of his generation.
His prose novella Bödeln ("The Hangman", 1933), later adapted for the stage, (The Hangman, 1933; play, 1934) shows his growing concern with the totalitarianism and brutality that began to sweep across Europe in the years prior to World War II. Nazism was one of the main butts of the work and Der Stürmer responded with a very dismissive review. Criticism against Fascism is also present in the play Mannen utan själ (The Man Without a Soul, 1936).
Lagerkvist's 1944 novel Dvärgen (The Dwarf), a searching, ironic tale about evil, was the first to bring him positive international attention outside of the Nordic countries. The work was followed in 1949 by the unusual, lyrical play Låt människan leva (Let Man Live).
Barabbas (1950), which was immediately hailed as a masterpiece (by, among others, fellow Nobel laureate André Gide) is probably Lagerkvist's most famous work. The novel is based on a Biblical story. Jesus of Nazareth was sentenced to die by the Roman authorities immediately before the Jewish Passover, when it was customary for the Romans to release someone convicted of a capital offense. When the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate offers to free Jesus or Barabbas, a convicted thief and murderer, a Jerusalem mob demands the release of Barabbas, who spends the rest of his life trying to come to terms with why he was chosen to live.
The novel was filmed in 1962, with Anthony Quinn playing the title role.
Lagerkvist died in Stockholm.
==
Pär Lagerkvist was born on May 23, 1891, in Växjö, Småland, the youngest of seven children in a traditional and deeply religious family. His father, a railroad employee, refused to join his trade union because he believed that it contradicted God's established order. Despite his parents' devout beliefs and daily readings from the bible at home, Lagerkvist developed an alternative view of religion at a tender age, becoming in his own words, "a believer without faith, a religious atheist." He formed a group called "The Red Ring" with four friends and they discussed topics such as religion, anarchy, socialism, and evolutionism. Darwin's Origin of Species profoundly influenced the young group; Lagerkvist later wrote that it disturbed, "the very foundation of the transcendental view of the world."

François Charles Mauriac (11 October 1885 – 1 September 1970) was a French author, member of the Académie française (from 1933), and laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature (1952). He was awarded the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur in 1958.

Biography
He was born François Charles Mauriac in Bordeaux, France. He studied literature at the University of Bordeaux, graduating in 1905, after which he moved to Paris to prepare for postgraduate study at the École des Chartes.
On 1 June 1933 he was elected a member of the Académie française, succeeding Eugène Brieux.[1]
Mauriac had a bitter dispute with Albert Camus immediately following the liberation of France in World War II. At that time, Camus edited the resistance paper (now an overt daily) Combat while Mauriac wrote a column for Le Figaro. Camus said newly liberated France should purge all Nazi collaborator elements, but Mauriac warned that such disputes should be set aside in the interests of national reconciliation. Mauriac also doubted that justice would be impartial or dispassionate given the emotional turmoil of liberation.
Mauriac also had a bitter public dispute with Roger Peyrefitte, who criticised the Vatican in books such as Les Clés de saint Pierre (1953). Mauriac threatened to resign from the paper he was working with at the time (L'Express) if they did not stop carrying advertisements for Peyrefitte's books. The quarrel was exacerbated by the release of the film adaptation of Peyrefitte's Les Amitiés Particulières and culminated in a virulent open letter by Peyrefitte in which he accused Mauriac of homosexual tendencies and called him a Tartuffe.[2]
Mauriac was opposed to French rule in Vietnam, and strongly condemned the use of torture by the French army in Algeria.
In 1952, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature "for the deep spiritual insight and the artistic intensity with which he has in his novels penetrated the drama of human life".[3] He was awarded the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur in 1958.[4] He published a series of personal memoirs and a biography of Charles de Gaulle. Mauriac's complete works were published in twelve volumes between 1950 and 1956. He encouraged Elie Wiesel to write about his experiences as a Jew during the Holocaust, and wrote a foreword in Elie Wiesel's book, Night.
He was the father of writer Claude Mauriac and grandfather of Anne Wiazemsky, a French actress and author who worked with and married French director Jean-Luc Godard.
François Mauriac died in Paris on 1 September 1970 and was interred in the Cimetière de Vemars, Val d'Oise, France.

==
French novelist, essayist, poet, playwright, journalist, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1952. François Mauriac belonged to the long tradition of French Roman Catholic writers, who examined the problems of good and evil in human nature and in the world.
"There is no accident in our choice of reading. All our sources are related." (in Mauriac's Mémoires Intérieures, 1959)
François Mauriac was born in Bordeaux, the youngest son of Jean-Paul Mauriac, a wealthy businessman. When Mauriac was not quite two years old, his father died, and the family lived with grandparents. His mother was a devout Catholic, who was influenced by Jansenist thought. From the age of seven, Mauriac attended a school run by the Marianite Order. The author never ceased to acknowledge the importance of his early education although he was unhappy at Ste Marie.
http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/mauriac.htm

Born into the aristocratic family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family, Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father, used the surname "Churchill" in public life. His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough, to highlight his descent from John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Winston's father, Lord Randolph Churchill, the third son of John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough, was a politician; and his mother, Lady Randolph Churchill (née Jennie Jerome) was the daughter of American millionaire Leonard Jerome. Winston was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire.
From age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy and employed Churchill's father as his private secretary. Churchill's brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland. It has been claimed that the young Winston first developed his fascination with military matters from watching the many parades pass by the Vice Regal Lodge (now Áras an Uachtaráin, the official residence of the President of Ireland).
Churchill's earliest exposure to education occurred in Dublin, where a governess tried teaching him reading, writing, and arithmetic (his first reading book was called 'Reading Without Tears'). With limited contact with his parents, Churchill became very close to his nanny, 'Mrs' Elizabeth Anne Everest, whom he called 'Old Woom'. She served as his confidante, nurse, and mother substitute.[7] The two spent many happy hours playing in the Phoenix Park.
Independent and rebellious by nature, Churchill generally had a poor academic record in school, for which he was punished. He was educated at three independent schools: St. George's School, Ascot, Berkshire; Brunswick School in Hove, near Brighton (the school has since been renamed Stoke Brunswick School and relocated to Ashurst Wood in West Sussex); and at Harrow School from 17 April 1888. Within weeks of his arrival at Harrow, Churchill had joined the Harrow Rifle Corps.
Churchill was rarely visited by his mother, and wrote letters begging her either to come to the school or to allow him to come home.
His relationship with his father was distant; he once remarked that they barely spoke to one another. His father died on 24 January 1895, aged 45, leaving Churchill with the conviction that he too would die young and so should be quick about making his mark on the world.

Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American author and journalist. His economical and understated style had a strong influence on 20th-century fiction, while his life of adventure and his public image influenced later generations. Hemingway produced most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s, and won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954. He published seven novels, six short story collections, and two non-fiction works. Three novels, four collections of short stories, and three non-fiction works were published posthumously. Many of these are considered classics of American literature.
Hemingway was raised in Oak Park, Illinois. After high school he reported for a few months for The Kansas City Star, before leaving for the Italian front to enlist with the World War I ambulance drivers.
In 1918, he was seriously wounded and returned home. His wartime experiences formed the basis for his novel A Farewell to Arms. In 1922, he married Hadley Richardson, the first of his four wives. The couple moved to Paris, where he worked as a foreign correspondent, and fell under the influence of the modernist writers and artists of the 1920s "Lost Generation" expatriate community. The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway's first novel, was published in 1926.
After his 1927 divorce from Hadley Richardson, Hemingway married Pauline Pfeiffer. They divorced after he returned from the Spanish Civil War where he had been a journalist, and after which he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls. Martha Gellhorn became his third wife in 1940. They separated when he met Mary Welsh in London during World War II. He was present at the Normandy Landings and the liberation of Paris.
Shortly after the publication of The Old Man and the Sea in 1952, Hemingway went on safari to Africa, where he was almost killed in two successive plane crashes that left him in pain or ill health for much of the rest of his life. Hemingway had permanent residences in Key West, Florida, and Cuba during the 1930s and 1940s, but in 1959 he moved from Cuba to Ketchum, Idaho, where he committed suicide in the summer of 1961.

Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. His father, Clarence Edmonds Hemingway was a physician, and his mother, Grace Hall-Hemingway, was a musician.
Both were well-educated and well-respected in the conservative community of Oak Park,[2] a community about which resident Frank Lloyd Wright said, "So many churches for so many good people to go to". For a short period after their marriage,[4] Clarence and Grace Hemingway lived with Grace's father, Ernest Hall, who eventually became their first son's namesake.[note 1] Later Ernest Hemingway would say he disliked his name, which he "associated with the naive, even foolish hero of Oscar Wilde's play The Importance of Being Earnest".[5] The family eventually moved into a seven-bedroom home in a respectable neighborhood with a music studio for Grace and a medical office for Clarence.[2]
Hemingway's mother frequently performed in concerts around the village. As an adult, Hemingway professed to hate his mother, although biographer Michael S. Reynolds points out that Hemingway mirrored her energy and enthusiasm. Her insistence that he learn to play the cello became a "source of conflict", but he later admitted the music lessons were useful to his writing, as is evident in the "contrapuntal structure" of For Whom the Bell Tolls.[7] The family owned a summer home called Windemere on Walloon Lake, near Petoskey, Michigan, where as a four-year-old his father taught him to hunt, fish and camp in the woods and lakes of Northern Michigan. His early experiences in nature instilled a passion for outdoor adventure and living in remote or isolated areas.[8]
From 1913 until 1917, Hemingway attended Oak Park and River Forest High School where he took part in a number of sports, namely boxing, track and field, water polo and football. He excelled in English classes,[9] and performed in the school orchestra with his sister Marcelline for two years.[6] In his junior year, he took a journalism class, taught by Fannie Biggs, which was structured "as though the classroom were a newspaper office". The better writers in class submitted pieces to the The Trapeze, the school newspaper. Hemingway and Marcelline both had pieces submitted to The Trapeze; Hemingway's first piece, published in January 1916, was about a local performance by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra.[10] He continued to contribute to and to edit the Trapeze and the Tabula (the school's newspaper and yearbook), for which he imitated the language of sportswriters, and used the pen name Ring Lardner, Jr.—a nod to Ring Lardner of the Chicago Tribune whose byline was "Line O'Type". Like Mark Twain, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser and Sinclair Lewis, Hemingway was a journalist before becoming a novelist; after leaving high school he went to work for The Kansas City Star as a cub reporter.[11] Although he stayed there for only six months he relied on the Star's style guide as a foundation for his writing: "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative."[12]

Early in 1918 Hemingway responded to a Red Cross recruitment effort in Kansas City and signed on to become an ambulance driver in Italy. He left New York in May, and arrived in Paris as the city was under bombardment from German artillery.[14] By June he was at the Italian Front. It was probably around this time that he first met John Dos Passos, with whom he would maintain a rocky relationship for decades thereafter.[15] On his first day in Milan he was sent to the scene of a munitions factory explosion where rescuers retrieved the shredded remains of female workers.
He described the incident in his non-fiction book Death in the Afternoon: "I remember that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments".[ A few days later he was stationed at Fossalta di Piave.
On July 8 he was seriously wounded by mortar fire, having just returned from the canteen bringing chocolate and cigarettes for the men at the front line.[ Despite his wounds, Hemingway carried an Italian soldier to safety, for which he received the Italian Silver Medal of Bravery.[ Still only 18, Hemingway said of the incident: "When you go to war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality. Other people get killed; not you ... Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you."
He sustained severe shrapnel wounds to both legs, underwent an immediate operation at a distribution center and spent five days at a field hospital before he was transferred for recuperation to the Red Cross hospital in Milan.[ He spent six months at the hospital where he met and formed a strong friendship with "Chink" Dorman-Smith that lasted for decades, and shared a room with future American foreign service officer, ambassador, and author Henry Serrano Villard.[19]

One of the most famous American novelist, short-story writer and essayist, whose deceptively simple prose style have influenced wide range of writers. Hemingway was awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize for Literature. He was unable to attend the award ceremony in Stockholm, because he was recuperating from injuries sustained in an airplane crash while hunting in Uganda.
"Certainly there is no hunting like the hunting of man and those who have hunted armed men long enough and liked it, never really care for anything else thereafter. You will meet them doing various things with resolve, but their interest rarely holds because after the other thing ordinary life is as flat as the taste of wine when the taste buds have been burned off your tongue." ('On the Blue Water' in Esquire, April 1936)
Ernest Hemingway was born inn Oak Park, Illinois. His mother Grace Hall, whom he never forgave for dressing him as a little girl in his youth, had an operatic career before marrying Dr. Clarence Edmonds Hemingway; he taught his son to love out-door life. Hemingway's father took his own life in 1928 after losing his healt to diabetes and his money in the Florida real-estate bubble. Hemingway attended the public schools in Oak Park and published his earliest stories and poems in his high school newspaper. Upon his graduation in 1917, Hemingway worked six months as a reporter for The Kansas City Star. He then joined a volunteer ambulance unit in Italy during World War I. In 1918 he suffered a severe leg wound. For his service, Hemingway was twice decorated by the Italian government

-والدته كانت تعامله كطفلة وليس كطفل وكانت تجعله يرتدي ملاب الاناث وكان يكهها لذلك السبب وهو ما يشير ربما لحالة نفسة لديها ولا يعرف شيء عنها ولا متى ماتت.
-علمه والده الصيد وهو صغير وكان يحب الحياة في الطبيعة.
-ما ان انهى دراسه الثانوية حتى تطوع للعمل في الجبهة واصيب في اول يوم عمل له في ايطاليا.
-تعرض لعدة اصابات وبقي في المستشفى لمدد طويلة.
-واضح ان ما شاهده على الجبهة ومنها تجربته الاولى التي تمثلت في لملمة بقايا صبايا قطعهن القصف وذلك في اول يوم له في الجبهة كان له اعظم الاثر عليه. خاصة وانه لم يتجاوز الثامنة عشر حينذا:ز
-انتحر والده الطبيب والذي علمه الصيد بسبب المرض وهمنجوي كان في سن 29 سنة.
مأزوم بسبب طريقة تربيتة وبسبب مشاركته في الحرب وهو صغير ومشاهدته لمشاهد القتل. تكرست ازمته بعد اصابته في الجبهة وقضاؤه اشهر في المشفى وتعمقت ازمة بعد انتحار والده وهو في سن 29.

مأزوم.

هالدور لاكسنس

هو أديب آيسلندي ولد في 23 افريل 1902 وتوفي في 8 فيفري 1998. تحصل على جائزة نوبل في الأدب لسنة 1955 و ايضا حصل على جائزة الاتحاد السوفيتي للسلام في الاعمال الادبيةو كان ذلك في سنة 1953 . تتمحور جميع أعماله حول بلده آيسلندا. نشر أول رواية له في سن السابعة عشرة من عمره تناول فيها مرحلة طفولته وأطلق على الرواية اسم «طفل الطبيعة». أما الرواية التي لفتت أنظار الأوساط الأدبية إليه كانت «النساج العظيم من كشمير» ونشرت عام 1929.
تخرج من المدرسة اللاتينية الآيسلندية وبعدها زار أرجاء أوروبا لدراسة الديانة المسيحية واللغات الأجنبية، وفي النهاية قرر عدم دخول سلك الرهبنة. وعند انتهاء الحرب العالمية الأولى، أمضى زمنا طويلا في أوروبا والولايات المتحدة، وحاول أن يجد لنفسه عملا في هوليوود ككاتب سيناريو بين 1927 و 1929

Halldór Kiljan Laxness (Icelandic: [ˈhaltour ˈcʰɪljan ˈlaxsnɛs] (listen); born Halldór Guðjónsson; 23 April 1902 – 8 February 1998) was a twentieth-century Icelandic writer. Throughout his career Laxness wrote poetry, newspaper articles, plays, travelogues, short stories, and novels. Major influences on his writings include August Strindberg, Sigmund Freud, Sinclair Lewis, Upton Sinclair, Bertolt Brecht and Ernest Hemingway. He received the 1955 Nobel Prize in Literature, and is the only Icelandic Nobel laureate.

Early life
Laxness was born under the name Halldór Guðjónsson (following the tradition of Icelandic patronymics) in Reykjavik in 1902, the son of Guðjón Helgason and Sigríður Halldórsdóttir. After spending his early years in Reykjavik, he moved with his family in 1905 to Laxnes near Mosfellsbær, a more rural area just north of the capital.
He soon started to read books and write stories. At the age of 14 his first article was published in the newspaper Morgunblaðið under the name "H.G." His first book, the novel Barn náttúrunnar (translated Child of Nature), was published in 1919.[2] At the time of its publication he had already begun his travels on the European continent.
1920s
In 1922, Laxness joined the Abbaye St. Maurice et St. Maur in Clervaux, Luxembourg. The monks followed the rules of Saint Benedict of Nursia. Laxness was baptized and confirmed in the Catholic Church early in 1923. Following his confirmation, he adopted the surname Laxness (in honor of the homestead where he had been raised) and added the name Kiljan (an Icelandic spelling of the Irish martyr Saint Killian).
Inside the walls of the abbeyدير , he practiced self-study, read books, and studied French, Latin, theology and philosophy. While there, he composed the story Undir Helgahnjúk, published in 1924. Soon after his baptism, he became a member of a group which prayed for reversion of the Nordic countries back to Catholicism. Laxness wrote of his Catholicism in the book Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír, published in 1927: "For a while he reached a safe haven in a Catholic monastery in Luxembourg, whence he sent home surrealistic poetry and gathered material for the great autobiographical novel recording his mental development, 'a witch brew of ideas presented in a stylistic furioso' (Peter Hallberg), Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír. I have long thought that this work was marked by the chaos of German expressionism; at any rate it has the abandon advocated by André Breton, the master of French surrealism. It created a sensation in Iceland and was hailed by Kristjan Albertsson as the epoch-making book it really was. In the future Laxness was always in the vanguard of stylistic development..."[4]
"Laxness's religious period did not last long; during a visit to America he became attracted to socialism." Partly under the influence of Upton Sinclair, with whom he'd become friends in California, "With Alþydubókin (1929) Laxness... joined the socialist bandwagon... a book of brilliant burlesque and satirical essays... one of a long series in which he discussed his many travel impressions (Russia, western Europe, South America), unburdened himself of socialistic satire and propaganda, and wrote of the literature and the arts, essays of prime importance to an understanding of his own art..." Laxness lived in the United States and attempted to write screenplays for Hollywood films between 1927 and 1929.

انتقل وعمره ثلاث سنوات مع عائلته الى الريف حيث عاش في مزرعة والده. درس في المدرسة الاتينية. سافر في انحاء اوروبا . عاش في دير لفترة لكنه قرر عدم الانضمام الى سلك الرهبنة. لا يوجد معلومات عن والديه.

مجهول الطفولة.

ولد خوان رامون في بلدة مُغير (بالإسبانية: Moguer) بولبة.[1] درس أول أعوامه فيها، ثم انتقل بعدها لقادس ليدرس في المدرسة اليسوعية، وهناك تعرف على أسماء أدبية ناشئة مثله، وفي هذه الفترة كتب أول قصائده وإن لم ينشر منها شيئاً. خلال تلك الفترة قرأ وتأثر بأعمال الإسبانيين أدولفو بيكر وغونغورا، والذي سيضيف لهما في فترات لاحقة من حياته، اسم شاعر نيكاراغوا المعروف روبن داريو، رائد مدرسة التحديث المودرنيزم في الشعر المكتوب باللغة الإسبانية، حيث سيتحول إلى معجب ودارس لمسيرته الشعرية. وهذا الإعجاب سيكون متبادلاً بين القمتين الشعريتين إلى درجة الصداقة.
في تلك الفترة ونتيجة لهذا التشجيع، انتقل خمينث لمدينة مدريد وتواصل مع شعراء العاصمة وهناك نشر أول كتبه الشعرية بتأثر واضح بملامح الحركة التحديثية. وفي تلك الفترة أصيب بعوارض مرضية نفسية، أجبرته على العودة لقريته مُغير.
في العام نفسه توفي والده، مما ضاعف مرضه وحزنه وإحساسه بالتوحد في هذا العالم.
سافر بعدها إلى فرنسا للعلاج والنقاهة، وهناك قرأ لشعراء الحركة الرمزية الفرنسية أمثال بودليرومالارميه، مما سيترك أثراً واضحاً في كتبه الشعرية التي أنجزها في تلك الفترة. سافر فيما بعد إلى إيطاليا وشرع بكتابة ديوانه الثالث قصائد لينشره بعد عودته لمدريد. حولت الكتابة والمرض منذ هذه اللحظة لصيقين بحياة خمينث، إلى درجة أن أغلب الدراسات النقدية عنه لا بد لها من الدخول بتحليلات عميقة لأثر المرض في كتابات وحياة خمينث. خلال تلك الفترة خضع لعلاج طبي مستمر في مصحة نفسية حتى شعر بالاستقرار الجزئي وعاد سنة 1905 لمسقط رأسه في قريته مغير. أثناء تلك الفترة نضج فكره بشكل كبير، وعندها كتب مطولته النثرية المعروفة بلاتيرو وأنا.

جبل وسهل وبحر بعيد ...... أتذكرينني، أنا الراعي التائه،
والمغني الغريب الذي غاب في أصقاع الشمال
ذات فجر صيفي وحيد.
ها أنا ذا أفردك، من أغنيتي، بالكنز الذي اكتشفتُ[2]»

سنة 1911 عاد خيمينيث مجدداً لمدريد، واستقر في نزل للطلبة، وهو نفس النزل الذي مر فيه فيه سنوات لاحقة العديد من أهم أدباء وفناني أسبانيا في القرن العشرين مثل غارثيا لوركا، دالي أو بونويل.
إلتقى خوان رامون خيمينيث بزنوبيا كامبروني. لقائه بهذه الشابة المهتمة بالأدب، وهي ابنة لأم من بويرتو ريكو وأب إسباني، تحول إلى الأمل الوحيد في حياة خوان رامون خيمينيث. لم يكن طريق التقائهما سهلاً، فإضافة للفارق العمري ومعارضة عائلة الفتاة، لم تكن الفتاة متحمسة للزواج من رجل إنعزالي وشاعر مصاب بالجنون والوهم. ولكن لقائاتهما المتكررة ونقاط ثقافية مشتركة عديدة قد أزاحت العديد من عراقيل ارتباطهما الرسمي الذي سيتم في عام 1916.
سافر مع خطيبته للولايات المتحدة للزواج وتمضية شهر عسل. لخص وقائع رحلته إلى نيويورك في ديوان "يوميات شاعر حديث الزواج " (1917) ومثلما يدل عنوان الكتاب فقد ألفه بما يشبه اليوميات بمزيج من النثر والشعرية وأدخل فيها موضوعا سيعود إليه لاحقا شعراء من أمثال فيدريكو غارثيا لوريكا ألا وهو نيويورك رمزا للعصر الصناعي الجديد. ثم واصل سيره نحو "الشعر الخالص" الذي سيكون بمثابة إبتكار وعلامة مميزة لأغلب نتاجه الشعري اللاحق كما عليه في ديوانه "أبديات" (1918) ويحتوي هذا الديوان على بيت شعري شهير يلخص رؤيته ومفهومه الشعري:

مع نشوب الحرب الأهلية الإسبانية عام 1936، فضل خمينث مصاحبة زوجته والهروب حتى الأراضي الأمريكية، بعد أن سهل لهم مانويل أثانيا للسفر بجوازات ديبلوماسية. في البدء أقاما في نيويورك، ثم توجها إلى بويرتو ريكو، ليسافرا للاستقرار في كوبا لأكثر من ثلاث سنوات. وكان خيمينيث من المتحمسين للجمهورية الإسبانية، ولهذه الأسباب لم يرجع لبلده خلال فترة الديكتاتورية. يظهر موقفه السياسي جليا في إعداده كتاب متعاطف مع الجمهورية الإسبانية، عنوانه الحرب في إسبانيا، والذي لم يتمكن من نشره.[4] تحدث فيه عن معتقداته السياسية المؤيدة لنظام الجمهورية واستعرض شخصية الأدباء الأسبان وظروفه وقال صراحة ما رأيه في نسبة منهم.
خلال هذه الفترة عمل في أكثر من جامعة وكتب العديد من المقالات النقدية في الشعر الإسباني والأميركي اللاتيني، والتي تم جمعها بعد وفاته وصدرت في كتابين. كما عمل كأستاذ زائر في الولايات المتحدة والأرجنتين حتى عودته النهائية عام 1951 لبويرتكو ريكو، ليستقر فيها بسبب من تردي وضعه الصحي. في بويرتو ريكو، إنضما لكادر التدريس في الجامعة الوطنية، حيث أحتفي بهما بشكل لا مثيل له، حتى أن الجامعة قد أطلقت أسميهما على قاعة دراسية.
خلال تلك الفترة حتى عام 1958 أشتدت وطأة مرضه وبدأ يمر بحالات مرضية عصبية متكررة. إثناء ذلك أصيبت زوجته زنوبيا بالسرطان، وعلى الرغم من علاجها المتكرر، إلا أن المرض قضى عليها لتموت بعد ثلاث أيام من تلقيهما خبر منح خيمينيث جائزة نوبل للآداب عام 1956، وهي التي عملت كل جهودها خلال سنين طوال من أجل التعريف بخمينث في الأوساط الأكاديمية لجائزة نوبل.
بعد رحيل زوجته، لم تستقر حالة خيمينيث المرضية، ليرحل عن العالم في 29 من شهر مايس عام 1958، ليدفن في منفاه الأخير بويرتو ريكو.

Juan Ramón Jiménez Mantecón (23 December 1881 – 29 May 1958) was a Spanish poet, a prolific writer who received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1956. One of Jiménez's most important contributions to modern poetry was his advocacy of the French concept of "pure poetry."

Biography
Juan Ramón Jiménez was born in Moguer, near Huelva, in Andalucia, on 23 December 1881. He studied law at the University of Seville, but he declined to put this training to use. He published his first two books at the age of eighteen, in 1900. The death of his father the same year devastated him, and a resulting depression led to his being sent first to France, where he had an affair with his doctor's wife, and then to a sanatorium in Madrid staffed by novitiate nuns, where he lived from 1901 to 1903.
In 1911 and 1912, he wrote many erotic poems depicting romps with numerous females in numerous locales. Some of them alluded to sex with novitiates who were nurses. Eventually, apparently, their mother superior discovered the activity and expelled him, although it will probably never be known for certain whether the depictions of sex with novitiates were truth or fantasy.
The main subjects of many of his other poems were music and color, which, at times, he compared to love or lust.
He celebrated his home region in his prose poem about a writer and his donkey called Platero y Yo (1914). In 1916 he and Spanish-born writer and poet Zenobia Camprubí were married in the United States. Zenobia became his indispensable companion and collaborator.
Upon the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, he and Zenobia went into exile in Cuba, the United States, and Puerto Rico, where he settled in 1946. Jiménez was hospitalized for eight months due to another deep depression. He later became a Professor of Spanish Language and Literature at the University of Maryland, College Park. The university later named a building on campus and a living-and-learning writing program in his honor. He was also a professor at the University of Miami, in Coral Gables, Florida. While living in Coral Gables he wrote: "Romances de Coral Gables".
In 1956, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature; three days later, his wife died of ovarian cancer. Jiménez never got over this loss, and he died two years afterwards, on 29 May 1958, in the same clinic where his wife had died. Both of them are buried in Spain.
Legacy
Although he was primarily a poet, Jiménez' prose work Platero y yo (1917; "Platero and I") sold well in Latin America, and in translation won him popularity in the USA. He also collaborated with his wife in the translation of the Irish playwright John Millington Synge's Riders to the Sea (1920). His poetic output during his life was immense. Among his better known works are Sonetos espirituales 1914–1916 (1916; “Spiritual Sonnets, 1914–15”), Piedra y cielo (1919; “Stones and Sky”), Poesía, en verso, 1917–1923 (1923), Poesía en prosa y verso (1932; “Poetry in Prose and Verse”), Voces de mi copla (1945; “Voices of My Song”), and Animal de fondo (1947; “Animal at Bottom”). A collection of 300 poems (1903–53) in English translation by Eloise Roach was published in 1962.
His literary influence on Puerto Rican writers strongly marks the works of Giannina Braschi, René Marqués, and Manuel Ramos Otero. The library at the main campus of the University of Puerto Rico in Río Piedras features the "Sala Juan Ramón y Zenobia", a collection of many of Jiménez's personal belongings and personal library, as well as his wife's.
A quotation from Jiménez, "If they give you ruled paper, write the other way", is the epigraph to Ray Bradbury's novel Fahrenheit 451.
The name of Juan Ramón Jiménez is familiar to students at the University of Maryland, the language building of which is named for the poet.

In 1949, Camus founded the Group for International Liaisons within the Revolutionary Union Movement after his split with Garry Davis' movement Citizens of the World, which the surrealist André Breton was also a member.[3] The formation of this group, according to Camus, was to "denounce two ideologies found in both the USSR and the USA" regarding their idolatry of technology.[4]
Camus was awarded the 1957 Nobel Prize for Literature "for his important literary production, which with clear-sighted earnestness illuminates the problems of the human conscience in our times".[5] He was the second-youngest recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature, after Rudyard Kipling, and the first African-born writer to receive the award.[6] He is the shortest-lived of any Nobel literature laureate to date, having died in an automobile accident just over two years after receiving the award.

Early years
Albert Camus was born on 7 November 1913 in Dréan (then known as Mondovi) in French Algeria to a Pied-Noir family.[7] His mother was of Spanish descent and was half-deaf.
His father Lucien, a poor agricultural worker, died in the Battle of the Marne in 1914 during World War I, while serving as a member of the Zouave infantry regiment. Camus and his mother lived in poor conditions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of Algiers.
In 1923, Camus was accepted into the lycée and eventually he was admitted to the University of Algiers. After he contracted tuberculosis (TB) in 1930, he had to end his football activities (he had been a goalkeeper for the university team) and reduce his studies to part-time. To earn money, he also took odd jobs: as private tutor, car parts clerk and assistant at the Meteorological Institute. He completed his licence de philosophie (BA) in 1935; in May 1936, he successfully presented his thesis on Plotinus, Néo-Platonisme et Pensée Chrétienne (Neo-Platonism and Christian Thought), for his diplôme d'études supérieures (roughly equivalent to an M.A. thesis).
Camus joined the French Communist Party in the spring of 1935, seeing it as a way to "fight inequalities between Europeans and 'natives' in Algeria." He did not suggest he was a Marxist or that he had read Das Kapital, but did write that "[w]e might see communism as a springboard and asceticism that prepares the ground for more spiritual activities."[9] In 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party (PCA) was founded. Camus joined the activities of the Algerian People's Party (Le Parti du Peuple Algérien), which got him into trouble with his Communist party comrades. As a result, in 1937 he was denounced as a Trotskyite and expelled from the party. Camus went on to be associated with the French anarchist movement.
The anarchist André Prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting in 1948 of the Cercle des Étudiants Anarchistes (Anarchist Student Circle) as a sympathiser familiar with anarchist thought. Camus wrote for anarchist publications such as Le Libertaire, La révolution Proletarienne and Solidaridad Obrera (Workers' Solidarity, the organ of the anarcho-syndicalist CNT (National Confederation of Labor)). Camus stood with the anarchists when they expressed support for the uprising of 1953 in East Germany. He again allied with the anarchists in 1956, first in support of the workers’ uprising in Poznań, Poland, and then later in the year with the Hungarian Revolution.
In 1934, he married Simone Hié, a morphine addict, but the marriage ended as a consequence of infidelities on both sides. In 1935, he founded Théâtre du Travail (Worker's Theatre),[10] renamed Théâtre de l'Equipe (Team's Theatre) in 1937. It lasted until 1939. From 1937 to 1939 he wrote for a socialist paper, Alger-Républicain. His work included an account of the peasants who lived in Kabylie in poor conditions, which apparently cost him his job. From 1939 to 1940, he briefly wrote for a similar paper, Soir-Republicain. He was rejected by the French army because of his TB.
In 1940, Camus married Francine Faure, a pianist and mathematician. Although he loved her, he had argued passionately against the institution of marriage, dismissing it as unnatural. Even after Francine gave birth to twins, Catherine and Jean, on 5 September 1945, he continued to joke to friends that he was not cut out for marriage. Camus conducted numerous affairs, particularly an irregular and eventually public affair with the Spanish-born actress María Casares. In the same year, Camus began to work for Paris-Soir magazine. In the first stage of World War II, the so-called Phoney War, Camus was a pacifist. In Paris during the Wehrmacht occupation, on 15 December 1941, Camus witnessed the execution of Gabriel Péri; it crystallized his revolt against the Germans. He moved to Bordeaux with the rest of the staff of Paris-Soir. In the same year he finished his first books, The Stranger and The Myth of Sisyphus. He returned briefly to Oran, Algeria in 1942.

Boris Leonidovich Pasternak (Russian: Бори́с Леони́дович Пастерна́к; IPA: [bɐˈrʲis lʲeɐˈnʲidəvʲɪt͡ɕ pəstʲɪrˈnak]; 10 February [O.S. 29 January] 1890 – 30 May 1960) was a Russian language poet, novelist, and literary translator. In his native Russia, Pasternak's anthology My Sister, Life, is one of the most influential collections ever published in the Russian language. Furthermore, Pasternak's translations of stage plays by Goethe, Schiller, Pedro Calderón de la Barca, and William Shakespeare remain deeply popular with Russian audiences.
Outside Russia, Pasternak is best known as the author of Doctor Zhivago, a novel which takes place between the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the Second World War. Due to its independent minded stance on the socialist state, Doctor Zhivago was refused publication in the USSR. At the instigation of Giangiacomo Feltrinelli, Doctor Zhivago was smuggled to Milan and published in 1957. Pasternak was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature the following year, an event which both humiliated and enraged the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. In the midst of a massive campaign against him by the CPSU and the Union of Soviet Writers, Pasternak reluctantly agreed to decline the Prize. In his resignation letter to the Nobel Committee, Pasternak stated the reaction of the Soviet State was the only reason for his decision.
By the time of his death from lung cancer in 1960, the campaign against Pasternak had severely damaged the international credibility of the U.S.S.R. He remains a major figure in Russian literature to this day. Furthermore, tactics pioneered by Pasternak were later continued, expanded, and refined by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and other Soviet dissidents.

Early life
Pasternak was born in Moscow on 10 February, (Gregorian), 1890 (Julian 29 January) into a wealthy assimilated Russian Jewish family.
His father was the Post-Impressionist painter, Leonid Pasternak, professor at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture.
(Leonid Osipovich Pasternak (born Yitzhok-Leib, or Isaak Iosifovich, Pasternak; Russian: Леони́д О́сипович Пастерна́к, 4 April 1862 N.S. - 31 May 1945)
His mother was Rosa Kaufman, a concert pianist and the daughter of Odessa industrialist Isadore Kaufman.
In a 1959 letter to Jacqueline de Proyart, Pasternak recalled,
"I was baptized as a child by my nanny, but because of the restrictions imposed on Jews, particularly in the case of a family which was exempt from them and enjoyed a certain reputation in view of my father's standing as an artist, there was something a little complicated about this, and it was always felt to be half-secret and intimate, a source of rare and exceptional inspiration rather than being calmly taken for granted. I believe that this is at the root of my distinctiveness. Most intensely of all my mind was occupied by Christianity in the years 1910-12, when the main foundations of this distinctiveness -- my way of seeing things, the world, life -- were taking shape..."
Shortly after his birth, Pasternak's parents had joined the Tolstoyan Movement. Novelist Leo Tolstoy was not only a close family friend. Pasternak later recalled, "my father illustrated his books, went to see him, revered him, and ...the whole house was imbued with his spirit."

Russian poet, whose novel Doktor Zhivago brought him the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1958. Though Pasternak was not a political writer, the award brought him brought him into the spotlight of international politics and he had to decline the honour. The novel was banned in the Soviet Union and Pasternak was expelled from the Union of Soviet Writers. After Doctor Zhivago had reached the West, it was soon translated into 18 languages. Pasternak was rehabilitated posthumously in 1987, which made possible the publication of his major work.
"Yura enjoyed being with his uncle. He reminded him of his mother. Like hers, his mind moved with freedom and welcomed the unfamiliar. He had the same aristocratic sense of equality with all living creatures and the same gift of taking in everything at a glance and of expressing his thoughts as they first came to him and before they had lost their meaning and vitality." (from Doctor Zhivago)
Boris Pasternak was born into a prominent Jewish family in Moscow, where his father, Leonid Osipovich Pasternak, was a professor at the Moscow School of Painting. His mother, Rosa Kaufman, was an acclaimed concert pianist. Their home was open to such guests as Sergei Rachmaninoff, Aleksandr Scriabin, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Tolstoy. Inspired by Scriabin, Palsternak entered the Moscow Conservatory, but gave up suddenly his musical ambitions in 1910. He then studied philosophy under Prof. Herman Cohen at the Marburg University in Germany, and returned to Moscow in the winter of 1913-14.
As a poet Pasternak made his debut with the collection Bliznets v tuchakh (1914). During World War I Pasternak worked as a private tutor and at a chemical factory in the Ural Mountains. Due to a leg injury he did not serve in the army. The journey to the Ural gave him material for Doctor Zhivago. Although Pasternak was horrified by the brutality of the new government, he supported the Revolution. His parents and sisters migrated to Germany in 1921, when travel abroad was legalized. Leonid Pasternak died in Oxford in 1945.

كواسيمودو، سالفاتوري

(Salvatore Quasimodo) (موديكا، 20 أغسطس 1901 - نابولي 14 يونيو 1968) شاعر وناقد ومترجم إيطالي، كان حتى عام 1942م ينتمي إلى المدرسة الهرمسية التي تتسم بنظم الشعر بأسلوب شخصي عسير ولكنه تحول بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية إلى مناقشة موضوعات اجتماعية عصرية في كتاباته[1]، حصل على جائزة نوبل للآداب في سنة 1959م عن أعماله الشعرية الغنائية المعبرة عن الحياة المأساوية في عصرنا الحالي، يعد إلى جانب جوزيبي أونغاريتي ويوجينيو مونتالي أحد أهم الشعراء الإيطاليين بالقرن العشرين.

ولد كواسيمودو في مدينة موديكا بالقرب من صقلية لأب يعمل موظفاً بالسكك الحديدية، تلقى تعليمه الابتدائي بالقرب من مدينة سيراقوسة وفي مدينة ميسينا ثالث أكبر مدينة بجزيرة صقلية، درس الرياضياتوالهندسة في مدينة باليرمو وبعدها رحل إلى الشمال حيث أكمل دراسته الهندسية بروما سنة 1919م، عمل كمهندس في أحد الهيئات الحكومية الإيطالية لعشر سنوات، وكان يستغل أوقات الفراغ في كتابة الشعر هوايته التي أحبها منذ الطفولة.[2]
ظهرت أول أعمال كواسيمودو الشعرية بمجلة Solaria "سولاريا" وهي مجلة ادبية دورية تصدر في فلورنسا، وقد كان وقتها تلميذاً لشاعري المدرسة الهرمسية جوزيبي أونغاريتي ويوجينيو مونتالي، وفي عام 1930م صدرت تلك الأعمال في ديوان تحت عنوان Acque e terre "مياه ويابسة" والذي جعل من كواسيمودو رائداً من رواد المدرسة الهرمسية، وبعد سنة 1935م اعتزل كواسيمودو الهندسة نهائياً ليتفرغ لتدريس الأدب الإيطالي بأحد المعاهد الموسيقية بميلان، أتبع ديوانه الأول بمجموعة من الدواوين التي اتسمت بالأسلوب الشخصي العسير والرموز الهرمسية المبهمة ولكنها احتوت على بعض القصائد التي تميزت بحيودها عن الاستغراق الشخصي وتطرقها إلى موضوعات معاصرة من هذه الدواوين: ديوان Oboe sommerso "المزمار المغمور" سنة 1932 وديوان Odore di eucalyptus "أريج الكافور" سنة 1933 و Erato e Apollion "إراتو وأبوليون" سنة 1936، آخر أعماله التي تنتمي للمدرسة الهرمسية هما ديوان Poesie "القصائد" سنة 1938م و Ed è subito sera "وفجأة يطل المساء" سنة 1942م.[2]
بعد انتهاء الحرب العالمية تحول أسلوبه لمعالجة أحداث عصره، وابتداءً من ديوانه Giorno dopo giorno "يوم إثر الآخر" سنة 1947م غدا شعره تأملاً دقيقاً في الحزن والدمار الذين جلبتهما الحرب على الإنسانية[1]، نددت كثير من قصائده في تلك الحقبة بضيم الحكم الفاشي، وبشاعات الحروب، وآثام الإيطاليين، كما أضحت قصائده تتسم ببساطة اللغة وواقعية الصور والمجازات.[2]
حصل على جائزة سان بابليا عام 1950 وفي عام 1953 تناصف جائزة ايتناورمينا مع الشاعر الويلزي ديلان توماس. وفي عام 1958 حصل على جائزة مايريجيو، حصل على جائزة نوبل عام 1959، لكواسيمودو - إلى جانب نشاطه الشعري - مشاركات فلسفية. ومن كتبه في هذا الحقل : ((الروح فعل خالص))1937، ((مذهب المنطق من حيث هو نظرية للمعرفة)) 1946 و((فلسفة الفن)) 1949

Salvatore Quasimodo (Italian pronunciation:; August 20, 1901 – June 14, 1968) was an Italian author and poet. In 1959 he won the Nobel Prize for Literature "for his lyrical poetry, which with classical fire expresses the tragic experience of life in our own times". Along with Giuseppe Ungaretti and Eugenio Montale, he is one of the foremost Italian poets of the 20th century.


Biography
Quasimodo was born in Modica, Sicily. In 1908 his family moved to Messina, as his father had been sent there to help the population struck by a devastating earthquake.
The impressions of the effects of natural forces would have a great impact on the young Quasimodo.
In 1919 he graduated from the local Technical College. In Messina he also made friends with Giorgio La Pira, future mayor of Florence.
In 1917 Quasimodo founded the short-lived Nuovo giornale letterario ("New Literary Journal"), in which he published his first poems. In 1919 he moved to Rome to finish his engineering studies, but poor economic conditions forced him to find a work as a technical draughtsman. In the meantime he collaborated with several reviews and studied Greek and Latin.
In 1929, invited by Elio Vittorini, who had married Quasimodo's sister, he moved to Florence. Here he met poets such as Alessandro Bonsanti and Eugenio Montale. In 1930 he took a job with Italy's Civil Engineering Corps in Reggio Calabria. Here he met the Misefari brothers, who encouraged him to continue writing. Developing his nearness to the hermetic movement, Quasimodo published his first collection, Acque e terre ("Waters and Earths") in that year.
==
Salvatore Quasimodo was born in Modica, a small town near Syracuse, Sicily, the son of Gaetano Quasimodo, a railway officer, and Clotilde Quasimodo (née Ragusa). His father's work took the family to Messina, where they arrived two days after the great earthquake of 1908.
Quasimodo started to read and write at an exceptionally early age and show interest in Greek lyric poetry. When his parents felt that technical training would lead to a more practical career, Quasimodo was sent to the Palermo technical college and then he moved in his teens to Rome, where he studied engineering at the Polytechnical Institute. Because of financial problems, he left the school without completing an engineering degree, but was qualified as a surveyor. For a period he worked for a construction firm.
In 1926 Quasimodo was appointed to the government Civil Engineering Department. The new job took him to many differents parts of Italy. Eventually he returned to the south in Reggio Calabria, where he wrote his first poems. Quasimodo's brother-in-law, Elio Vittorini, who became a novelist, introduced him to the literary circles. Among his friends were Eugenio Montale, Giuseppe Ungaretti, and Alessandro Bonsati

Saint-John Perse (also Saint-Leger Leger; pseudonyms of Alexis Leger) (31 May 1887–20 September 1975) was a French poet, awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1960 "for the soaring flight and evocative imagery of his poetry." He was also a major French diplomat from 1914 to 1940, after which he lived primarily in the USA until 1967.

Biography
Alexis Leger was born in Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe. His great-grandfather, a solicitor, had settled in Guadeloupe in 1815. His grandfather and father were also solicitors; his father was also a member of the City Council. The Leger family owned two plantations, one of coffee (La Joséphine) and the other of sugar (Bois-Debout).
In 1897, Hégésippe Légitimus, the first native Guadeloupan elected president of the Guadeloupe General Council, took office with a vindictive agenda towards colonists. The Leger family returned to metropolitan France in 1899 and settled in Pau. The young Alexis felt like an expatriate, and spent much of his time hiking, fencing, riding horses, and sailing in the Atlantic. He was awarded the baccalaureate with honors, and began studying law at the University of Bordeaux.
When his father died in 1907, the resulting strain on his family's finances led Leger to interrupt temporarily his studies, but he eventually completed his degree in 1910.
In 1904 he met the poet Francis Jammes at Orthez, who became a dear friend. He frequented cultural clubs, and met Paul Claudel, Odilon Redon, Valery Larbaud, and André Gide.[2] He wrote short poems inspired by the story of Robinson Crusoe (Images à Crusoe) and undertook a translation of Pindar. He published his first book of poetry, Éloges, in 1911.
In 1914, he joined the French diplomatic service, and spent some of his first years in Spain, Germany, and the United Kingdom. When World War I broke out, he was a press corps attaché for the government. From 1916 to 1921, he was secretary to the French Embassy in Peking. In 1921 in Washington, while taking part in a world disarmament conference, he was noticed by Aristide Briand, the then-Prime Minister of France, who recruited him as his assistant. In Paris, he got to know the fellow intellectual poet Paul Valéry who used his influence to get the poem Anabase, written during Léger's stay in China, published. Léger was warm to classical music, and knew Igor Stravinsky, Nadia Boulanger, and les Six.
While in China, Leger had written his first extended poem Anabase, publishing it in 1924 under the pseudonym "Saint-John Perse", one he employed for the rest of his life. He then published nothing for two decades, not even a re-edition of his debut book, because he believed it inappropriate for a diplomat to publish fiction. After Briand's death in 1932, Leger served as the General Secretary of the French Foreign Office (Quai d'Orsay) until 1940, a period in which the French government experienced chronic instability and turmoil. He accompanied the French Foreign Minister at the Munich Conference in 1938, where the cession of Czechoslovakia to Germany was agreed to. He was dismissed from his post right after the fall of France in May 1940, because he was a known anti-Nazi. In mid-July 1940, Leger began a long exile in Washington, D.C..
The Vichy government dismissed him from the Légion d'honneur order and revoked his French citizenship (it was reinstated after the war.) He was in some financial difficulty as an exile in Washington until Archibald MacLeish, Director of the Library of Congress and himself a poet, raised sufficient private donations to enable the Library to employ Perse until his official retirement from the French civil service in 1947. Perse declined a teaching position at Harvard University.
During his American exile, Perse wrote his long poems Exil, Vents, Pluies, Neiges, Amers, and Chroniques. He remained in the USA long after the end of the Second World War ended, traveling extensively, observing nature, and enjoying the friendship of, among others, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Attorney General Francis Biddle and his spouse, author Katherine Garrison Chapin. Leger was on good terms with the UN Secretary General and author Dag Hammarskjöld. In 1957, American friends gave him a villa at Giens in Provence, and from that time on, he split his time between France and the United States. In 1958, he married the American Dorothy Milburn Russell.
In 1960, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. After receiving the Nobel Prize, he wrote the long poems Chronique, Oiseaux, Chant pour un équinoxe, and the shorter Nocturne and Sécheresse. In 1962, Georges Braque worked with master printmaker Aldo Crommelynck to create a series of etchings and aquatints titled L’Ordre des Oiseaux,[3] which was published with the text of Perse's Oiseaux by Au Vent d'Arles'.[4]
A few months before he died, Leger donated his library, manuscripts and private papers to Fondation Saint-John Perse, a research centre devoted to his life and work (Cité du Livre, Aix-en-Provence) that remains active down to the present day. He died in his villa in Giens and is buried nearby

حوادث مدينة ترافنيك
1560
تحكي عن الثورات التي قامت في المدينة للانفصال عن الحكم العثماني في تلك الفترة
جسر على نهر الدرينا
1571
الأحداث التي شهدتها مدينة فيتشي غراد، رواية ساخرة
الآنسة
غير محدد
رواية نفسية تحكي قصة مريضة نفسية اسمها رايكا
الفناء الملعون
1432
قصة رجل تخيل نفسه تناسخاً روحياً مع ابن السلطان محمد الفاتح جمشيد

Ivan "Ivo" Andrić (Serbian Cyrillic: Иво Андрић, pronounced [ǐʋan ǐːʋɔ ǎːndritɕ]) (October 9, 1892 – March 13, 1975) was a Yugoslav novelist,[1][2] short story writer, and the 1961 winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature.[3] His writings dealt mainly with life in his native Bosnia under the Ottoman Empire. His native house in Travnik has been transformed into a Museum, and his Belgrade flat on Andrićev Venac hosts the Museum of Ivo Andrić, and Ivo Andrić Foundation.

Biography
Ivan Andrić was born on October 9, 1892, to Croatian[ parents in Travnik, Bosnia and Herzegovina, then part of Austria-Hungary. He was born as Ivan, but became known by the diminutive Ivo.
When Andrić was two years old, his father Antun died.
Because his mother Katarina was too poor to support him, he was raised by his mother's family in the town of Višegrad on the river Drina in eastern Bosnia, where he saw the 16th-century Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge, later made famous in his novel The Bridge on the Drina (Na Drini ćuprija).[6]
Andrić attended the Jesuit gymnasium in Travnik, followed by Sarajevo's gymnasium and later he studied philosophy at the Universities of Zagreb (1912 and 1918), Vienna (1913), Kraków (1914), and Graz (PhD, 1924).[7] Because of his political activities, Andrić was imprisoned by the Austrian government during World War I (first in Maribor and later in the Doboj detention camp) alongside other pro-Yugoslav civilians.
Andric started his literary career as a poet. In 1914 he was one of the contributors to Hrvatska mlada lirika (Young Croatian Lyrics).[8]
Under the newly-formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later Kingdom of Yugoslavia) Andrić became a civil servant, first in the Ministry of Faiths and then the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, where he pursued a successful diplomatic career as Deputy Foreign Minister.
During his diplomatic service, he worked in embassy at Holy See (1920), consulates in Bucharest, Trieste and Graz (1924), consulates in Paris and Marseilles (1927), and embassy in Madrid (1928). In 1939 he was appointed ambassador in Germany. He was also a delegate of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia at the 19th, 21st, 23rd and 24th sessions of the League of Nations in Geneva in period 1930–1934.[9] Andrić greatly opposed the movement of Stjepan Radić, the president of the Croatian Peasant Party. His ambassadorship ended in 1941 after the German invasion of Yugoslavia. During World War II, Andrić lived quietly in Belgrade, completing three of his most famous novels which were published in 1945, including The Bridge on the Drina.
After the war, Andrić spent most of his time in his home in Belgrade and held a number of ceremonial posts in the new Communist government of Yugoslavia, and was also a member of the Parliament of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1961, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature "for the epic force with which he has traced themes and depicted human destinies drawn from the history of his country". He donated all of the prize money for the improvement of libraries in Bosnia and Herzegovina. He was member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts.[10]
Following the death of his 2nd wife, Milica Babić-Andrić, in 1968, he began reducing his public activities.
In 1969 he was elected an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. and in 1972 the University of Belgrade awarded him an honorary doctorate.[12] As time went by, he grew increasingly ill and eventually died on March 13, 1975, in Belgrade, SR Serbia, SFR Yugoslavia.
He was buried in the Belgrade New Cemetery, in the Alley of Distinguished Citizens.

John Ernst Steinbeck, Jr. (February 27, 1902 – December 20, 1968) was an American writer. He is widely known for the Pulitzer Prize-winning novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939) and East of Eden (1952) and the novella Of Mice and Men (1937). As the author of twenty-seven books, including sixteen novels, six non-fiction books and five collections of short stories, Steinbeck received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1962.

Life
John Ernst Steinbeck, Jr. was born on February 27, 1902, in Salinas, California. He was of German, English, and Irish descent.[2] Johann Adolf Großsteinbeck, Steinbeck's paternal grandfather, had shortened the family name to Steinbeck when he immigrated to the United States. The family farm in Heiligenhaus, Mettmann, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, is still today named "Großsteinbeck."
His father, John Ernst Steinbeck, served as Monterey County treasurer. John's mother, Olive Hamilton, a former school teacher, shared Steinbeck's passion of reading and writing.[3] The Steinbecks were members of the Episcopal Church.[4]
Steinbeck lived in a small rural town that was essentially a frontier settlement, set amid some of the world's most fertile land. He spent his summers working on nearby ranches and later with migrant workers on Spreckels ranch.
He became aware of the harsher aspects of migrant life and the darker side of human nature, which supplied him with material expressed in such works as Of Mice and Men.[5] He also explored his surroundings, walking across local forests, fields, and farms.[5]
Steinbeck graduated from Salinas High School in 1919 and went from there to Stanford University in Palo Alto where he stayed for five years until 1925, leaving without a degree.
He traveled to New York City where he took odd jobs while trying to write. When he failed to have his work published, he returned to California and worked in 1928 as a tour guide and caretaker at the fish hatchery in Tahoe City, where he met Carol Henning, his first wife. Steinbeck and Henning were married in January 1930. For most of the Great Depression and during his marriage to Carol, Steinbeck lived in a cottage owned by his father in Pacific Grove, California, on the Monterey Peninsula a few blocks from the border of the city of Monterey, California. The elder Steinbecks gave him free housing, paper for his manuscripts, and beginning in 1928, loans that allowed him to give up a warehouse job in San Francisco, and focus on writing.[7]
After the publication of Tortilla Flat—a novel set in Monterey—in 1935, he built a summer ranch-home in Los Gatos. In 1940, Steinbeck went on a voyage around the Gulf of California with his friend Ed Ricketts, to collect biological specimens, described in The Log from the Sea of Cortez. Although Carol accompanied Steinbeck on the trip, their marriage was beginning to suffer, and would end in 1941, even as Steinbeck worked on the manuscript for the book.[7] In 1942, Steinbeck's divorce from Carol became final and later that month he married Gwyndolyn "Gwyn" Conger.[8] With his second wife Steinbeck had his only children—Thomas ("Thom") Myles Steinbeck (born 1944) and John Steinbeck IV (1946–1991).
In 1943, Steinbeck served as a World War II war correspondent. Steinbeck accompanied the commando raids of Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.'s Beach Jumpers program, which launched small-unit diversion operations against German-held islands in the Mediterranean. In 1944, wounded by a close munitions explosion in North Africa, the war-weary author resigned from his work and returned home.
In 1947, Steinbeck made the first of many trips to the Soviet Union, this one with renowned photographer Robert Capa. They visited Moscow, Kiev, Tbilisi, Batumi and Stalingrad, becoming some of the first Westerners to visit many parts of the USSR since the communist revolution. Steinbeck's book about their experiences, A Russian Journal, was illustrated with Capa's photos. In 1948, the year the book was published, Steinbeck was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters.
In May 1948 Steinbeck traveled to California on an emergency trip to be with his friend Ed Ricketts, who had been seriously injured when his car was struck by a train. Ricketts died hours before Steinbeck arrived.
On returning home from this devastating trip, Steinbeck was confronted by Gwyn, who told him she wanted a divorce for various reasons related to estrangement. She could not be dissuaded, and the divorce became final in August. Steinbeck spent the year after Ricketts' death in deep depression, by his own account.
In June 1949, Steinbeck met stage-manager Elaine Scott at a restaurant in Carmel, California. Steinbeck and Scott eventually began a relationship and in December, 1950, Steinbeck and Scott married, within a week of the finalizing of Scott's own divorce from actor Zachary Scott. This third marriage for Steinbeck lasted until his death in 1968.
In 1966, Steinbeck traveled to Tel Aviv to visit the site of Mount Hope, a farm community established in Israel by his grandfather, whose brother, Friedrich Grosssteinbeck, was murdered by Arab marauders in 1858.
John Steinbeck died in New York City on December 20, 1968 of heart disease and congestive heart failure. He was 66, and had been a lifelong smoker. An autopsy showed nearly complete occlusion of the main coronary arteries.[9]
In accordance with his wishes, his body was cremated, and an urn containing his ashes was eventually interred (March 4, 1969) at the Hamilton family gravesite at Garden of Memories Memorial Park in Salinas, with those of his parents and maternal grandparents. His third wife, Elaine, was buried in the plot in 2004. He had earlier written to his doctor that he felt deeply "in his flesh" that he would not survive his physical death, and that the biological end of his life was the final end to it.
Father: John Ernst Steinbeck (Monterey County Treasurer, b. 1862, d. 1935)
Mother: Olive Hamilton Steinbeck (teacher, b. 1867, d. 1934)
Sister: Elizabeth Ann Steinbeck Ainsworth (b. 25-May-1894, d. 20-Oct-1992)
Sister: Mary Steinbeck Dekker (b. 9-Jan-1905, d. 23-Jan-1965)
Wife: Carol Henning (secretary, m. 14-Jan-1930, div. 1932)
Wife: Gwyndolyn Conger (singer, m. 29-Mar-1943, div. Aug-1948)
Son: Thomas (author, b. 2-Aug-1944)
Son: John IV (writer, b. 12-Jun-1946, d. 7-Feb-1991)
Wife: Elaine Anderson Scott (oil heiress, m. 28-Dec-1950, until his death

Seferis was born in Urla (Greek: Βουρλά) near Smyrna in Asia Minor, Ottoman Empire (now İzmir, Turkey). His father, Stelios Seferiadis, was a lawyer, and later a professor at the University of Athens, as well as a poet and translator in his own right. He was also a staunch Venizelist and a supporter of the demotic Greek language over the formal, official language (katharevousa). Both of these attitudes influenced his son.
In 1914 the family moved to Athens, where Seferis completed his secondary school education. He continued his studies in Paris from 1918 to 1925, studying law at the Sorbonne. While he was there, in September 1922, Smyrna/Izmir was taken by the Turkish Army after a two year Greek military campaign on Anatolian soil. Many Greeks, including Seferis' family, fled from Asia Minor. Seferis would not visit Smyrna again until 1950; the sense of being an exile from his childhood home would inform much of Seferis' poetry, showing itself particularly in his interest in the story of Odysseus. Seferis was also greatly influenced by Kavafis, T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound.
He returned to Athens in 1925 and was admitted to the Royal Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the following year. This was the beginning of a long and successful diplomatic career, during which he held posts in England (1931–1934) and Albania (1936–1938). He married Maria Zannou ('Maro') on April 10, 1941 on the eve of the German invasion of Greece. During the Second World War, Seferis accompanied the Free Greek Government in exile to Crete, Egypt, South Africa, and Italy, and returned to liberated Athens in 1944. He continued to serve in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and held diplomatic posts in Ankara, Turkey (1948–1950) and London (1951–1953). He was appointed minister to Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq (1953–1956), and was Royal Greek Ambassador to the United Kingdom from 1957 to 1961, the last post before his retirement in Athens. Seferis received many honours and prizes, among them honorary doctoral degrees from the universities of Cambridge (1960), Oxford (1964), Salonika (1964), and Princeton (1965).

(21 يونيو1905باريس - 15 أبريل1980باريس) هو فيلسوفوروائيوكاتب مسرحيكاتب سيناريو و ناقد أدبيوناشط سياسي فرنسي. بدأ حياته العملية استاذاً. درس الفلسفة في ألمانيا خلال الحرب العالمية الثانية. حين احتلت ألمانيا النازيةفرنسا، انخرط سارتر في صفوف المقاومة الفرنسية السرية.

حياته
بعد الحرب أصبح رائد مجموعة من المثقفين في فرنسا. وقد أثرت فلسفته الوجودية، التي نالت شعبية واسعة، على معظم أدباء تلك الفترة. منح جائزة نوبل للآداب عام 1964. تميزت شخصياته بالانفصال عنه وبدت وكأنها موضوعات جدال وحوار أكثر منها مخلوقات بشرية، غير أنه تميز بوضع أبطاله في عالم من ابتكاره.
لم يكن سارتر مؤلفاً مسرحياً محترفاً، وبالتالي فقد كانت علاقته بالمسرح عفوية طبيعية. وكان بوصفه مؤلفاً مسرحياً، يفتقر أيضاً إلى تلك القدرة التي يتمتع بها المحترف بالربط بين أبطاله وبين مبدعيهم. كما كان يفتقر إلى قوة التعبير الشاعري بالمعنى الذي يجعل المشاهد يلاحق العمق الدرامي في روح البطل الدرامي.
تميزت موضوعات سارتر الدرامية بالتركيز على حالة أقرب إلى المأزق أو الورطة. ومسرحياته " الذباب" " اللامخرج" "المنتصرون" تدور في غرف التـعذيب أو في غرفة في جهنم أو تحكي عن طاعون مصدره الذباب. وتدور معظمها حول الجهد الذي يبذله المرء ليختار حياته وأسلوبها كما يرغب والصراع الذي ينتج من القوى التقليدية في العالم التقليدي الذي يوقع البطل في مأزق ويحاول محاصرته والإيقاع به وتشويشه وتشويهه.
وإذا كان إدراك الحرية ووعيها هي الخطوة الأولى في الأخلاقية السارترية فإن اسـتخدامه لهذه الحرية وتصرفه بها - التزامه- هو الخطوة الثانية. فالإنسان قبل أن يعي حريته ويستثمر هذه الحرية هو عدم أو هو مجرد "مشـيئ" أي أنه أقرب إلى الأشـياء منه إلى الكائن الحي. إلا أنه بعد أن يعي حريته يمسي مشـروعاً له قيمته المميزة.
في مسرحيتيه الأخيرتين "نكيرازوف" (1956) و"سجناء التونا" (1959) يطرح سارتر مسائل سياسية بالغة الأهمية. غير أن مسرحياته تتضمن مسائل أخرى تجعلها أقرب إلى الميتافيزيقيا منها إلى السياسة. فهو يتناول مواضيع مثل: شرعية اسـتخدام العنف، نتائج الفعل، العلاقة بين الفرد والمجتمع، وبين الفرد والتاريخ. من مسرحياته أيضاً : "الشـيطان واللورد" و"رجـال بلا ظـلال".
وقد ساهم أيضا قي إعطاء الجزائر استقلالها ووقف امام حركة بلاده الاستعمارية وكان قوله المشهور السلام هو الحرية

ولد جون بول سارتر في شهر يناير عام 1905 في عائلة بسيطة برجوازية. كان والده يعمل بالجيش ونشأت والدته في عائلة من المفكرين والمدرسين وكان عمه رجل سياسي.
- لم يتعرف سارتر إلى والده الذي مات بعد خامسة عشر شهرا من ولادته ومع ذلك فقد كان حاضرا من خلال جده، وهو رجل ذو شخصيه قوية والذى قام بتربيته حتى التحق بالمدرسة العامة وهو في العاشره من عمره.
عاش "بولو" الصغير، كما أطلق عليه، عشر سنوات من عام 1907 إلى 1917 مع والدته و عائلتها في سعادة وحب وهناء. اكتشف سارتر القراءة في مكتبة البيت الكبيرة وفضلها عن مصادقة الأطفال في سنه.
- انتهت هذه الفترة السعيدة عام 1917 عندما تزوجت والدته بجوزيف مانسى مهندس بحرى و الذي كان سارتر يبغضه كثيرا.
- كان يبلغ سارترالثانية عشرمن عمره عندما انتقل للعيش ب "روشيل" و ظل بها حتى الخامسة عشر من عمره.
- كانت هذه السنوات الثلاث سنوات تعيسة ففد ترك سارتر مناخ الأسرة السعيده ليصطدم بحقيقة زملائه الطلاب الذين مثلوا له العنف.
- أدى مرض سارتر عام 1920 إلى عودته إلى باريس كما أدى خوف والدته على أن تفسد أخلاقه بسبب زملائه الفاسدين بالمدرسة إلى ان تجعله يبقى معها بباريس.[1]

التحق سارتر وهو في السادسة عشر من عمره بالثانوية في مدرسة "هنرى الرابع " وهناك تعرف إلى بول نيزان كاتب مبتدىء ونشأت بينهم صداقه استمرت حتى وفاته في عام 1940 وقد ساهمت هذه الصداقه في تكوين شخصية سارتر. برع سارتر في مجال الفكاهه. استعد سارتر، مصاحبا بصديقه نيزان، للمسابقة الخاصة بالتحاق المدرسة التقليدية العليا "بمدرسة لويس لو جران ". قام سارتر في هذه المدرسة بكتابة أول اعماله الأدبية الرائعة وخاصة قصتين قصيرتين يحكى فيهما حكايتين مئسويتين لمدرسين في القرية.
ويظهر في هتين القصتين بوضوح اسلوب سارتر الساخر و الملىء بالنفور من الحياة الاجتماعيه المصطنعة. و يستكمل سارتر في الوقت نفسه كفكاهى مع صديقه نيزان, يمثلان المشاهد القصيره ويلقيان النكات بين الحصص المدرسية. و بعد عامين من التحاقهما ب"لويس لو جراند" أصبحا هو و نيزان مشتركان في المسابقة. تمييز سارتر، بعد فترة وجيزة في "المدرسةالمدعوه بالتقليديةوالعليا" كما اطلق عليها نيزان. ظل سارتر المحرك الأساسي لكل اعمال الشغب التي وصلت إلى اشتراكه بالتمثيل بمسرحية ضد الحكم العسكرى في العرض الاحتفالى "بالمدرسة التقليدية العليا" مع زملائه وذلك عام 1927. عقب هذا الحدث استقالة جوستاف لانسون مديرالمدرسة و الذي قام في نفس العام بالتوقيع هو وزملائه من دفعته على عريضه ( تم إعلانها في 15 ابريل في مجلد "أوروبا" ) ضد قانون المنظمة العامة للأمة لوقت الحرب والذى يلغى حرية الفكر و الرأى. كان سارتر يميل إلى معارضة السلطه كما كان له مكانة كبيرة لدى أساتذته الذين كانوا يستضيفونه في المطعم الخاص بهم. كان سارتر مجتهد جدا حيث أنه كان يقرأ أكثر من 300 كتاب في العام ويكتب الأغاني و الأشعار و القصص القصيرة والروايات. كون سارتر اصدقاء أصبحوا فيما بعد مشهورين مثل ريمون ارون و موريس ميرلو-بونتى. وبالرغم من هذا لم يكن سارتر يهتم بالسياسة طوال الأربعة اعوام التي قضاها بالمدرسة التقليدية العليا. لم يكن يشترك بأي مظاهرة ولا مولع بأي قضيه. ومما اثار دهشة محبيه, رسوبه في مسابقة شهادة الأستاذية في الفلسفة عام 1928 مما جعلهم يشكون في صحه تقييم الحكام. فاز في هذه المسابقه ريمون ارون بالمركز الأول (الذي، كما صرح سارتر نفسه, بانه قدم شىء متميز للغايه). عمل سارتر بجهد كبير من اجل التحضير للمسابقه التالية التي تعرف فيها إلى سيمون دى بوفوار عن طريق صديق مشترك رينيه ماهو والذى كان يطلق عليها اسم "قندس" نسبة للأنجليزية "بيفر" (و التي تعنى قندس: فمن جهه هذا الحيوان يمثل العمل و الحماس ومن جهه أخرى ايقاع الكلمة قريب من الاسم "بوفوار" ). اطلق سارتر عليها هذا الاسم أيضا كما أنه أصبح رفيقها حتى اخر ايامها. حصل سارتر على المركز الأول في المحاولة الثانيه في المسابقة و حصلت سيمون دى بوفوار على المركز الثاني. طلب سارتر, بعد تأدية الخدمة العسكرية, ان يتم نقله إلى اليابان حيث أنها لاطالما اثارت اهتمامه. ولكن لم يتحقق هذا الحلم حيث أن تم ارساله إلى "هارف" الثانوية والتى يطلق عليها "فرنسوا الأول " منذ 1931. وكان هذا اختبار حقيقى لسارتر الذي طالما اخافته الحياه المنظمة والذى نقد دائما في كتاباته حياه الريفية المملة.

Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (/ˈsɑrtrə/; French pronunciation: [saʁtʁ]; 21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a French existentialist philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism, and one of the leading figures in 20th-century French philosophy and Marxism. His work has also influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continues to influence these disciplines. Sartre has also been noted for his relationship with the prominent feminist theorist Simone de Beauvoir.
He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature and refused it, saying that he always declined official honors and that "a writer should not allow himself to be turned into an institution."[2]
Early life and thought
Jean-Paul Sartre was born in Paris as the only child of Jean-Baptiste Sartre, an officer of the French Navy, and Anne-Marie Schweitzer. His mother was of Alsatian origin and the first cousin of Nobel Prize laureate Albert Schweitzer. (Her father, Charles Schweitzer, was the older brother of Albert Schweitzer's father, Louis Théophile.)[4]
When Sartre was only two years old, his father died of a fever. Anne-Marie moved back to her parents' house in Meudon, where she raised Sartre with help from her father, a teacher of German, who taught Sartre mathematics and introduced him to classical literature at a very early age.[5]
When he was twelve, Sartre's mother remarried, and the family moved to La Rochelle, where he was frequently bullied.[6]
As a teenager in the 1920s, Sartre became attracted to philosophy upon reading Henri Bergson's essay Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness.[7] He studied and earned a degree in philosophy in Paris at the École Normale Supérieure, an institution of higher education that was the alma mater for several prominent French thinkers and intellectuals.[8] It was at ENS that Sartre began his lifelong, sometimes fractious, friendship with Raymond Aron.[9] Sartre was influenced by many aspects of Western philosophy, adopting ideas from Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Søren Kierkegaard, Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger, among others. Perhaps the most decisive influence on Sartre's philosophical development was his weekly attendance at Alexandre Kojève's seminars, which continued for a number of years.[10]
From his first years in the École Normale, Sartre was one of its fiercest pranksters; In 1927, his antimilitaristsatirical cartoon in the revue of the school, coauthored with Georges Canguilhem, particularly upset the director Gustave Lanson.[13] In the same year, with his comrades Nizan, Larroutis, Baillou and Herland,[14] he organized a media prank following Charles Lindbergh's successful New York-Paris flight; Sartre & Co. called newspapers and informed them that Lindbergh was going to be awarded an honorary École degree. Many newspapers, including Le Petit Parisien, announced the event on 25 May. Thousands, including journalists and curious spectators, showed up, unaware that what they were witnessing was a stunt involving a Lindbergh look-alike.[ The public's resultant outcry[need quotation to verify] forced Lanson to resign.
In 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who studied at the Sorbonne and later went on to become a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist. The two became inseparable and lifelong companions, initiating a romantic relationship,[18] though they were not monogamous.[19] Sartre served as a conscript in the French Army from 1929 to 1931 and he later argued in 1959 that each French person was responsible for the collective crimes during the Algerian War of Independence.

Mikhail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov (Russian: Михаи́л Алекса́ндрович Шо́лохов) (May 24 [O.S. May 11] 1905 – February 21, 1984) was a Soviet/Russian novelist and winner of the 1965 Nobel Prize in Literature. An asteroid in main-belt is named after him, 2448 Sholokhov.

Life and work
Sholokhov was born in Russia, in the "land of the Cossacks" - the Kruzhlinin hamlet, part of stanitsa Veshenskaya, in the former Administrative Region of the Don Cossack Army.
His father, Aleksander Mikhailovich (1865–1925), was a member of the lower middle class, at times a farmer, cattle trader, and miller.
Sholokhov's mother, Anastasia Danilovna Chernikova (1871–1942), the widow of a Cossack, came from Ukrainian peasant stock (her father was a peasant in the Chernihiv oblast). She did not become literate until a point in her life when she wanted to correspond with her son.
Sholokhov attended schools in Kargin, Moscow, Boguchar, and Veshenskaya until 1918, when he joined the Bolshevik side in the Russian civil war at the age of 13. He spent the next few years fighting in the civil war.
Sholokhov began writing at 17. He completed his first literary work, the short story, The Birthmark, at 19.
In 1922 Sholokhov moved to Moscow to become a journalist, but he had to support himself through manual labour. He was a stevedore, stonemason, and accountant from 1922 to 1924, but he also intermittently participated in writers' "seminars". His first published work was a satirical article, The Test (Oct. 19, 1923).[1]
In 1924 Sholokhov returned to Veshenskaya and devoted himself entirely to writing. In the same year he married Maria Petrovna Gromoslavskaia, the daughter of Pyotr Gromoslavsky, the ataman of the Bukanovskaya stanitsa; they had two daughters and two sons.
His first book Tales from the Don, a volume of stories about his native region during World War I and the Russian Civil War, largely based on his personal experiences, was published in 1926. The story "Nakhalyonok", partially based on his own childhood, was later made into a popular film.
In the same year Sholokhov began writing And Quiet Flows the Don which earned the Stalin Prize and took him fourteen years to complete (1926–1940). It became the most-read work of Soviet fiction and was heralded as a powerful example of socialist realism, and it earned him the 1965 Nobel Prize in Literature. It deals with the experiences of the Cossacks before and during World War I and the Russian Civil War.
Virgin Soil Upturned, which earned the Lenin Prize, took 28 years to complete. It was composed of two parts: Seeds of Tomorrow (1932) and Harvest on the Don (1960), and reflects life during collectivization in the Don area.
The short story The Fate of a Man (1957) was made into a popular Russian film.
His unfinished novel, They Fought for Their Country is about World War II fighting in the USSR (in Russia the Soviet-German war during World War II is commonly referred to as the Great Patriotic War).
In the 1930s he wrote several letters to Joseph Stalin about the appalling conditions in the kolkhozes and sovkhozes along the Don, requesting assistance for the farmers.[2]
During World War II Sholokhov wrote about the Soviet war efforts for various journals. He also covered the devastation caused by Nazi troops along the Don. His mother was killed when Veshenskaya was bombed in 1942.
Sholokhov's collected works were published in eight volumes between 1956 and 1960.

Nelly Sachs (10 December 1891 – 12 May 1970) was a Jewish German poet and playwright whose experiences resulting from the rise of the Nazis in World War II Europe transformed her into a poignant spokeswoman for the grief and yearnings of her fellow Jews. Her best-known play is Eli: Ein Mysterienspiel vom Leiden Israels (1950); other works include the poems "Zeichen im Sand" (1962), "Verzauberung" (1970), and the collections of poetry In den Wohnungen des Todes (1947), Flucht und Verwandlung (1959), Fahrt ins Staublose (1961), and Suche nach Lebenden (1971).

Life and career
Born Leonie Sachs in the Schöneberg district of Berlin, Germany in 1891, to a wealthy manufacturer, she was educated at home because of frail health. She showed early signs of talent as a dancer, but her protective parents did not encourage her to pursue a profession. She grew up as a very sheltered, introverted young woman and never married. She pursued an extensive correspondence with, and was friends with, Selma Lagerlöf and Hilde Domin. As the Nazis took power, she became increasingly terrified, at one point losing the ability to speak, as she would remember in verse: "When the great terror came/I fell dumb." Sachs fled with her aged mother to Sweden in 1940. It was her friendship with Lagerlöf that saved their lives: shortly before her own death Lagerlöf intervened with the Swedish royal family to secure their release from Germany. Sachs and her mother escaped on the last flight from Nazi Germany to Sweden, a week before Sachs was scheduled to report to a concentration camp.

Shmuel Yosef Agnon ((July 17, 1888 – February 17, 1970) was a Nobel Prize laureate writer and was one of the central figures of modern Hebrew fiction. In Hebrew, he is known by the acronym Shai Agnon ( In English, his works are published under the name S. Y. Agnon.
Biography
Agnon was born Shmuel Yosef Halevi Czaczkes in Buczacz (Polish spelling, pronounced Buchach) or Butschatsch (German spelling), Galicia (then within the Austro-Hungarian Empire), now Buchach, Ukraine. Officially, his date of birth on the Hebrew calendar was 18 Av 5648 (July 26), but he always said his birthday was on the Jewish fast day of Tisha B'Av, the Ninth of Av.
His father, Shalom Mordechai Halevy, was ordained as a rabbi, but worked in the fur trade, and had many connections among the Hasidim. His mother's side had ties to the Mitnagdim.
He did not attend school and was schooled by his parents.[ In addition to studying Jewish texts, Agnon studied writings of the Haskalah, and was also tutored in German.

Miguel Angel Asturias Rosales (October 19, 1899 – June 9, 1974) was a Nobel Prize–winning Guatemalanpoet, novelist, playwright, journalist and diplomat. Asturias helped establish Latin American literature's contribution to mainstream Western culture, and at the same time drew attention to the importance of indigenous cultures, especially those of his native Guatemala.
Asturias was born and raised in Guatemala though he lived a significant part of his adult life abroad. He first lived in Paris in the 1920s where he studied anthropology and Indian mythology.
Some scholars view him as the first Latin American novelist to show how the study of anthropology and linguistics could affect the writing of literature. While in Paris, Asturias also associated with the Surrealist movement, and he is credited with introducing many features of modernist style into Latin American letters. In this way, he is an important precursor of the Latin American Boom of the 1960s and 1970s.
One of Asturias' most famous novels, El Señor Presidente, describes life under a ruthless dictator. Asturias' very public opposition to dictatorial rule led to him spending much of his later life in exile, both in South America and in Europe. The book that is sometimes described as his masterpiece, Hombres de maíz (Men of Maize), is a defense of Mayan culture and customs. Asturias combined his extensive knowledge of Mayan beliefs with his political convictions, channeling them into a life of commitment and solidarity. His work is often identified with the social and moral aspirations of the Guatemalan people.
After decades of exile and marginalization, Asturias finally received broad recognition in the 1960s. In 1966, he won the Soviet Union's Lenin Peace Prize. The following year he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, only the second Latin American to receive this honor. Asturias spent his final years in Madrid, where he died at the age of 74. He is buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.

Early life and education
Miguel Ángel Asturias was born in Guatemala City on October 19, 1899, the first child of Ernesto Asturias Girón, a lawyer and judge, and María Rosales de Asturias, a schoolteacher.[2] Two years later, his brother, Marco Antonio, was born. Asturias's parents were of Spanish descent, and reasonably distinguished: his father could trace his family line back to colonists who had arrived in Guatemala in the 1660s; his mother, whose ancestry was more mixed, was the daughter of a colonel.

Despite his relative privilege, Asturias's father opposed the dictatorship of Manuel Estrada Cabrera, who had come to power in February 1898. As Asturias later recalled, "My parents were quite persecuted, though they were not imprisoned or anything of the sort".[4] Following an incident in 1904 which, in his capacity as judge, Asturias Sr. set free some students arrested for causing a disturbance, he clashed directly with the dictator, lost his job, and he and his family were forced to move in 1905 to the town of Salamá, the departmental capital of Baja Verapaz, where Miguel Ángel Asturias lived on his grandparents' farm.
It was here that Asturias first came into contact with Guatemala's indigenous people; his nanny, Lola Reyes, was a young indigenous woman who told him stories of their myths and legends that would later have a great influence on his work.[5]
In 1908, when Asturias was nine, his family returned to the suburbs of Guatemala City. Here they established a supply store where Asturias spent his adolescence.[6] Asturias first attended Colegio del Padre Pedro and then, Colegio del Padre Solís.[6] Asturias began writing as a student and wrote the first draft of a story that would later become his novel El Señor Presidente.[7]
In 1922, Asturias and other students founded the Popular University, a community project whereby "the middle class was encouraged to contribute to the general welfare by teaching free courses to the underprivileged."
Asturias spent a year studying medicine before switching to the faculty of law at the Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala in Guatemala City. He obtained his law degree in 1923 and received the Gálvez Prize for his thesis on Indian problems.[2]

ياسوناري كواباتا

سيرة ذاتية
وُلد كواباتا في أوساكا،

- وفقد والديه عندما كان في الثانية من عمره ليقوم جداه بتربيته بعد ذلك،
- وكان له أخت كبرى أخذتها عمة بعيدة لتربيها.
- ماتت جدته عندما أصبح في السابعة من عمره،
- وتوفيت شقيقته التي رآها مرة واحدة فقط منذ موت والديه عندما أصبح في العاشرة،
- وعندما صار في الخامسة عشرة من عمره توفي جده.
- وبفقدانه كل أفراد عائلته الأقربين، انتقل للإقامة مع عائلة والدته (آل كورودا)،
- ثم انتقل في يناير 1916 إلى بيت داخلي قرب المدرسة الثانوية حيث يدرس، وبعد تخرجه منها في 1917

انتقل إلى طوكيو آملاً في اجتياز امتحان المدرسة الثانوية الأولى التي كانت تعمل بإدارة جامعة طوكيو الإمبراطورية. نجح في الامتحان ودخل كلية الدراسات الإنسانية ليتخصص في اللغة الإنجليزية، وفي يوليو 1920 تخرج من الثانوية وبدأ دراسته في جامعة طوكيو الإمبراطورية في نفس الشهر.

Yasunari Kawabata (, Kawabata Yasunari?, 14 June 1899 – 16 April 1972) was a Japanese short story writer and novelist whose spare, lyrical, subtly-shaded prose works won him the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1968, the first Japanese author to receive the award. His works have enjoyed broad international appeal and are still widely read.

Biography
Born in Osaka, Japan, into a well-established doctor's family, Yasunari was orphaned when he was four, after which he lived with his grandparents. He had an older sister who was taken in by an aunt, and whom he met only once thereafter, at the age of ten (July 1909) (she died when he was 11).
Kawabata's grandmother died when he was seven (September 1906), and his grandfather when he was fifteen (May 1914).
Having lost all close relatives, he moved in with his mother's family (the Kurodas).
However, in January 1916, he moved into a boarding house near the junior high school (comparable to a modern high school) to which he had formerly commuted by train. Through many of Kawabata’s works the sense of distance in his life is represented. He often gives the impression that his characters have built up a wall around them that moves them into isolation. In a 1934 published work Kawabata wrote: “I feel as though I have never held a woman’s hand in a romantic sense[…] Am I a happy man deserving of pity?”. Indeed this does not have to be taken literally, but it does show the type of emotional insecurity that Kawabata felt, especially experiencing two painful love affairs at a young age.
After graduating from junior high school in March 1917, just before his 18th birthday, he moved to Tokyo, hoping to pass the exams of Dai-ichi Koto-gakko (First Upper School), which was under the direction of Tokyo Imperial University. He succeeded in the exam the same year and entered the Humanities Faculty as an English major (July 1920).
Kawabata graduated in 1924, by which time he had already caught the attention of Kikuchi Kan and other noted writers and editors through his submissions to Kikuchi's literary magazine, the Bungei Shunju.
In addition to fiction writing, Kawabata also worked as a reporter, most notably for the Mainichi Shimbun. Although he refused to participate in the militaristic fervor that accompanied World War II, he also demonstrated little interest in postwar political reforms. Along with the death of all his family while he was young, Kawabata suggested that the War was one of the greatest influences on his work, stating he would be able to write only elegies in postwar Japan. Still, many commentators detect little thematic change between Kawabata's prewar and postwar writings.
Kawabata apparently committed suicide in 1972 by gassing himself, but a number of close associates, including his widow, consider his death to have been accidental. One thesis, as advanced by Donald Richie, was that he mistakenly unplugged the gas tap while preparing a bath.
Many theories have been advanced as to his reasons for killing himself, among them poor health (the discovery that he had Parkinson's disease), a possible illicit love affair, or the shock caused by the suicide of his friend Yukio Mishima in 1970.[3] Unlike Mishima, Kawabata left no note, and since (again unlike Mishima) he had not discussed significantly in his writings the topic of taking his own life, his motives remain unclear. However, his Japanese biographer, Takeo Okuno, has related how he had nightmares about Mishima for two or three hundred nights in a row, and was incessantly haunted by the specter of Mishima. In a persistently depressed state of mind, he would tell friends during his last years that sometimes, when on a journey, he hoped his plane would crash

Samuel Barclay Beckett (13 April 1906 – 22 December 1989) was an Irish avant-gardenovelist, playwright, theatre director, and poet, who lived in Paris for most of his adult life and wrote in both English and French. His work offers a bleak, tragicomic outlook on human nature, often coupled with black comedy and gallows humour.
Beckett is widely regarded as among the most influential writers of the 20th century. Strongly influenced by James Joyce, he is considered one of the last modernists. As an inspiration to many later writers, he is also sometimes considered one of the first postmodernists. He is one of the key writers in what Martin Esslin called the "Theatre of the Absurd". His work became increasingly minimalist in his later career.
Beckett was awarded the 1969 Nobel Prize in Literature "for his writing, which—in new forms for the novel and drama—in the destitution of modern man acquires its elevation". He was elected Saoi of Aosdána in 1984.

Early life and education

The Becketts were members of the Anglican Church of Ireland. The family home, Cooldrinagh in the Dublin suburb of Foxrock, was a large house and garden complete with tennis court built in 1903 by Samuel's father, William. The house and garden, together with the surrounding countryside where he often went walking with his father, the nearby Leopardstown Racecourse, the Foxrock railway station and Harcourt Street station at the city terminus of the line, all feature in his prose and plays.
Samuel Beckett was born on Good Friday, 13 April 1906 to William Frank Beckett, a 35-year old quantity surveyor, and May Barclay (also 35 at Beckett's birth) a nurse.[4] They had married in 1901. Beckett had one older brother, Frank Edward Beckett (born 1902). At the age of five, Beckett attended a local playschool, where he started to learn music, and then moved to Earlsfort House School in the city centre near Harcourt Street. In 1919, Beckett went to Portora Royal School in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh (which Oscar Wilde had also attended). A natural athlete, Beckett excelled at cricket as a left-handed batsman and a left-arm medium-pace bowler. Later, he was to play for Dublin University and played two first-class games against Northamptonshire.[5] As a result, he became the only Nobel laureate to have an entry in Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, the "bible" of cricket[6]
Early writings

Beckett studied French, Italian, and English at Trinity College, Dublin from 1923 to 1927 (one of his tutors was the eminent Berkeley scholar A. A. Luce). Beckett graduated with a BA, and—after teaching briefly at Campbell College in Belfast—took up the post of lecteur d'anglais in the École Normale Supérieure in Paris. While there, he was introduced to renowned Irish author James Joyce by Thomas MacGreevy, a poet and close confidant of Beckett who also worked there. This meeting had a profound effect on the young man. Beckett assisted Joyce in various ways, one of which was research towards the book that became Finnegans Wake.[7]
In 1929, Beckett published his first work, a critical essay entitled "Dante... Bruno. Vico.. Joyce". The essay defends Joyce's work and method, chiefly from allegations of wanton obscurity and dimness, and was Beckett's contribution to Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress (a book of essays on Joyce which also included contributions by Eugene Jolas, Robert McAlmon, and William Carlos Williams). Beckett's close relationship with Joyce and his family cooled, however, when he rejected the advances of Joyce's daughter Lucia owing to her progressing schizophrenia. Beckett's first short story, "Assumption", was published in Jolas's periodical transition. The next year he won a small literary prize with his hastily composed poem "Whoroscope", which draws on a biography of René Descartes that Beckett happened to be reading when he was encouraged to submit.
In 1930, Beckett returned to Trinity College as a lecturer, though he soon became disillusioned with the post. He expressed his aversion by playing a trick on the Modern Language Society of Dublin. Beckett read a learned paper in French on a Toulouse author named Jean du Chas, founder of a movement called Concentrism. Chas and Concentrism, however, were pure fiction, having been invented by Beckett to mock pedantry. When Beckett resigned from Trinity at the end of 1931, his brief academic career was terminated. He commemorated it with the poem "Gnome", which was inspired by his reading of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship and eventually published in the Dublin Magazine in 1934:
Spend the years of learning squandering
Courage for the years of wandering
Through a world politely turning
From the loutishness of learning[8]
Beckett travelled in Europe. He spent some time in London, where in 1931 he published Proust, his critical Schopenhauerian study of French author Marcel Proust.
Two years later, following his father's death, he began two years' treatment with Tavistock Clinic psychoanalyst Dr. Wilfred Bion, who took him to hear Carl Jung's third Tavistock lecture, an event which Beckett still recalled many years later.
The lecture focused on the subject of the "never properly born." Aspects of it became evident in Beckett's later works, such as Watt and Waiting for Godot[ In 1932, he wrote his first novel, Dream of Fair to Middling Women, but after many rejections from publishers decided to abandon it (it was eventually published in 1993). Despite his inability to get it published, however, the novel served as a source for many of Beckett's early poems, as well as for his first full-length book, the 1933 short-story collection More Pricks Than Kicks.
In January 1938 in Paris, Beckett was stabbed in the chest and nearly killed when he refused the solicitations of a notorious pimp (who went by the name of Prudent). Joyce arranged a private room for Beckett at the hospital. The publicity surrounding the stabbing attracted the attention of Suzanne Dechevaux-Dumesnil, who previously knew Beckett slightly from his first stay in Paris. This time, however, the two would begin a lifelong companionship. At a preliminary hearing, Beckett asked his attacker for the motive behind the stabbing. Prudent replied: "Je ne sais pas, Monsieur. Je m'excuse" ["I do not know, sir. I'm sorry"]. Beckett eventually dropped the charges against his attacker—partially to avoid further formalities, partly because he found Prudent likeable and well-mannered. Beckett occasionally recounted the incident in jest.

ألكسندر سولجنيتسين

أديب ومعارض روسي ولد في 11 ديسمبر 1918، توفي في 3 أغسطس 2008[1]. كان روائياً روسياً سوفيتياً، وكاتب مسرحي ومؤرخ. من خلال كتاباته فهو جعل الناس يحذرون من الغولاغ، معسكرات الاتحاد السوفيتي للعمل القسري - خاصةً روايتيه أرخبيل غولاغ ويوم في حياة إيفان دينيسوفيتش - اثنتان من أشهر أعماله. تم منح ألكسندر سولجنيتسين جائزة نوبل في الأدب سنة 1970. طرد من الاتحاد السوفيتي سنة 1974 وعاد إلى روسيا سنة 1994. سولجنيتسين هو أب إغنات سولجنيتسين عازف بيانو.

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn was born in Kislovodsk, RSFSR (now in Stavropol Krai, Russia). His mother, Taisiya Solzhenitsyna (née Shcherbak) was Ukrainian. Her father had apparently risen from humble beginnings, as something of a self-made man. Eventually, he acquired a large estate in the Kuban region in the northern foothills of the Caucasus. During World War I, Taisiya went to Moscow to study. While there she met and married Isaakiy Solzhenitsyn, a young officer in the Imperial Russian Army of Cossack origins and fellow native of the Caucasus region. The family background of his parents is vividly brought to life in the opening chapters of August 1914, and in the later Red Wheel novels.
- In 1918, Taisia became pregnant with Aleksandr. Shortly after her pregnancy was confirmed, Isaakiy was killed in a hunting accident.
- Aleksandr was then raised by his widowed mother and aunt in lowly circumstances.
- His earliest years coincided with the Russian Civil War.
- By 1930 the family property had been turned into a collective farm. Later, Solzhenitsyn recalled that his mother had fought for survival and that they had to keep his father's background in the old Imperial Army a secret.
- His educated mother (who never remarried) encouraged his literary and scientific learnings and raised him in the Russian Orthodox faith;[5] she died in 1944.[6]
As early as 1936, Solzhenitsyn was developing the characters and concepts for a planned epic work on World War I and the Russian Revolution. This eventually led to the novel August 1914 – some of the chapters he wrote then still survive.[citation needed] Solzhenitsyn studied mathematics at Rostov State University. At the same time he took correspondence courses from the Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature and History, at this time heavily ideological in scope. As he himself makes clear, he did not question the state ideology or the superiority of the Soviet Union until he spent time in the camps.[citation needed]

بابلو نيرودا

ريكاردو اليسير نيفتالي رييس باسولاتو بابلو نيرودا

المعروف ب بابلو نيرودا (بالإسبانية: Ricardo Eliecer Neftalí Reyes Basoalto,Pablo Neruda) (ولد في تشيلي، بقرية بارال بوسط تشيلي 12 يوليو عام ‏(1904) وتوفي في 23 من سيبتمبر عام (1973). هو شاعر تشيلي الجنسية ويعتبر من أشهر الشعراء وأكثرهم تأثيراً في عصره( فهو من أفضل شعراء القرن العشرين في جميع لغات العالم) وفقا للكاتب الروائي (جابريل جارسيا ماركيز)[1] ذو اتجاه شيوعي متشدد، كما يعد من أبرز النشطاء السياسين، كان عضوا بمجلس الشيوخ وباللجنة المركزية للحزب الشيوعي كما أنه مرشح سابق للرئاسة في بلاده. نال نيرودا العديد من الجوائز التقديرية أبرزها جائزة نوبل في الاداب عام (1971) وحصل على الدكتوراة الفخرية من جامعة أوكسفورد. وكتب عنه الناقد الأدبي (هارولد بلووم):" لا يمكن مقارنة أي من شعراء الغرب بهذا الشاعر الذي سبق عصره".
حياته:
- تسمي والدته ( روسا باسولاتو) و قد وافتها المنيه بعد شهر من ولادته نتيجه اصابتها بمرض الدرن ,
ووالده خوسيه ديل كارمن رييس الذي ترك الريف للعمل كعامل في ميناء تلكوانو, حتي استطاع الحصول علي عمل في السكةالحديد في تيموكو. تعلم نيرودا حبالطبيعة منذ الصغر من خلال رحلاته بالقطار بين الأشجارالخضراء إلي بوروا. و كانت هذه المنطقة في الماضيساحة للمعارك بين المستعمرينالأسبان والاروكانوس الذين و بمرور الوقت جُردوا من أراضيهم و دمرت في وقت لاحق من قبل الزعماء المستوطنين ( منطقة الاروكانا ). هذه الاراضيالجنوبية المليئة بالبرد و الرطوبة يحدها واحد من انقي المحيطات و هو المحيطالهاديتظهر شاعرية الاحساس باليأس وشعورالانسان بالوحدة والحب والتي ظهرت في قصائدهالشهيرة المسماة (عشرون قصيدةحب و أغنية يأسه) وهو الكتاب الذي أوصل صاحبه الي المحافل العالمية والدولية واعطته شهره واسعة مثل شهرة الكاتب الكبير روبن داريو حيث استحق نيل جائزة نوبل عام (1971) مثلما نشرت الصفحة الخاصة بمعهد ثربانتس علي الانترنت في الصفحة الخاصة بمسيرة الكاتب.

هو ابن خوزيه ديل كارمن ريس موراليس عاملاً في سكك الحديد أما والدته روزا نفتالي باسوالتو تعمل بمهنة التدريس و توفيت في نهاية شهر أغسطس من نفس العام و قبل أن يكمل الرضيع شهره الثاني نتيجة لاصابتها بالدرن .
انتقلت عائلته عام 1906 الي تيموكو وهناك تزوج والده للمرة الثانية من‏ ترينيداد كانديا‏ ماربيردي , والتي كانت بالنسبة لنيرودا بمثابة أمه أو الملاك الحامي . دخل نيرودا الليسيه الخاص بالصبية حيث تابع دراسته هناك حتي انهي الصف السادس في دراسة العلوم الانسانية عام 1920 . البيئة الطبيعية المذهلة لمديمة تيموكو والغابات والبحيرات و الانهار والجبال شكلوا و للابد العالم الشعري لبابلو نيرودا .
كتب بابلو نيرودا قصائد عندما كان في العشرين من العمر قُدر لها أن تنتشر أولا في أنحاء تشيلي ولتنتقل بعدها إلى كافة أرجاء العالم لتجعل منه الشاعر الأكثر شهرة في القرن العشرين من أمريكا اللاتينية. من أشهر مجاميعه هي عشرون قصيدة حب وأغنية يائسة" التي ترجمت أكثر من مرة إلى اللغة العربية. " في هذه الليلة، أنا قادر على كتابة أكثر القصائد حزناً" كتب سيرته الذاتية بعنوان" أشهد أنني قد عشت" وترجمت إلى العربية منذ السبعينات من القرن الماضي. عندما أطاح الجنرال بينوشيه بالحكومة الاشتراكية المنتخبة ديمقراطياً وقتلوا الرئيس سلفادور أليندي, هجم الجنود على بيت الشاعر وعندما سألهم ماذا يريدون أجابوه بأنهم يبحثون عن السلاح فأجابهم الشاعر أن الشعر هو سلاحه الوحيد.

بدأت إبداعاته الشعرية في الظهور قبل أن يكمل بابلو عامه الخامس عشر وتحديدا عام‏1917‏ وفي عام‏1920‏ اختار لنفسه اسما جديدا هو بابلو نيرودا في مارس عام‏1921‏ قرر السفر إلي سانتياجو حيث استقر هناك في بيت الطلبة لاستكمال دراسته في اللغة الفرنسية التي كان يجيدها مثل أهلها وفي نفس هذا العام اشترك نيرودا في المظاهرت الثورية التي اندلعت في البلاد آنذاك وفي عام‏1924‏ يهجر نيرودا دراسة اللغة الفرنسية ويتخصص في الأدب ويكتب ثلاثة أعمال تجريبية وذلك قبل أن يبدأ رحلة تعيينه سفيرا في العديد من البلدان تنتهي بكونه سفيرا في الأرجنتين عام‏1933‏ أي بعد زواجه من الهولندية الجميلة‏'‏ ماريكا‏'‏ بثلاث سنوات والتي انتهي زواجه منها بإنجاب طفلته مارفا مارينا التي ولدت في مدريد في الرابع من أكتوبر عام‏1934‏ وفي نفس العام وتحديدا بعد شهرين تزوج نيرودا من زوجته الثانية ديليا ديل كاريل الأرجنتينية الشيوعية والتي تكبره بعشرين عاما ورغم كونه قد عمل سفيرا في العديد من الدول الأوروبية إلا أن ذلك لم يزده سوي إصرارا علي أن الشيوعية‏-‏ التي اندلعت شرارتها في روسيا‏-‏ ليست سوي المنقذ الحقيقي والحل السحري لكل المشكلات ورغم المتاعب التي سببها له هذا الاتجاه السياسي إلا أنه ظل متمسكا به إلي حد استقالته من عمله الدبلوماسي‏.‏ توفي والده عام 1938 وزوجته الأولى عام 1942 ثم يأتي عام‏ 1968‏ ويمرض الكاتب بمرض يقعده عن الحركة وفي‏21‏ أكتوبر عام‏1971‏ يفوز نيرودا بجائزة نوبل في الأدب وعندما يعود إلي شيلي يستقبله الجميع باحتفال هائل في استاد سانتياجو ويكون علي رأس الاحتفال سلفادور الليندي الذي لقي مصرعه بعد ذلك علي يد الانقلاب الذي قاده بينوشيه. وعندما حصل قتل الانقلابيون الرئيس أليندي جاء جنود بينوشيه إلى بيت بابلو نيرودا وعندما سألهم الشاعر ماذا يريدون قالوا له جئنا نبحث عن السلاح في بيتك فرد قائلا: إن الشعر هو سلاحي الوحيد. وبعدها بأيام توفي نيرودافي‏23‏ سبتمبر‏1973 متأثرا بمرضه وبإحباطه من الانقلابيين حتى أن آخر الجمل ولعلها آخر جملة في كتابه "أعترف أنني قد عشت" والذي يروي سيرته الذاتية (تُرجم للعربية!) هي "لقد عادوا ليخونوا تشيلي مرة أخرى".

Pablo Neruda (Spanish: [ˈpaβ̞lo̞ ne̞ˈɾuð̞a]; July 12, 1904 – September 23, 1973) was the pen name and, later, legal name of the Chilean poet, diplomat and politician Neftali Ricardo Reyes Basoalto. He chose his pen name after Czech poet Jan Neruda. In 1971 Neruda won the Nobel Prize for Literature.
Neruda became known as a poet while still a teenager. He wrote in a variety of styles including surrealist poems, historical epics, overtly political manifestos, a prose autobiography, and erotically-charged love poems such as the ones in his 1924 collection Twenty Love Poems and a Song of Despair. He often wrote in green ink colour as it was his personal symbol for desire and hope with his poetry.
Colombian novelist Gabriel García Márquez once called him "the greatest poet of the 20th century in any language."[2]
On July 15, 1945, at Pacaembu Stadium in São Paulo, Brazil, he read to 100,000 people in honor of Communist revolutionary leader Luís Carlos Prestes.[3] During his lifetime, Neruda occupied many diplomatic positions and served a stint as a senator for the Chilean Communist Party. When Chilean President González Videla outlawed communism in Chile in 1948, a warrant was issued for Neruda's arrest. Friends hid him for months in a house basement in the Chilean port of Valparaíso. Later, Neruda escaped into exile through a mountain pass near Maihue Lake into Argentina. Years later, Neruda was a close collaborator to socialist President Salvador Allende. When Neruda returned to Chile after his Nobel Prize acceptance speech, Allende invited him to read at the Estadio Nacional before 70,000 people.[4]
Neruda was hospitalised with cancer at the time of the Chilean coup d'état led by Augusto Pinochet. Three days after being hospitalised, Neruda died of heart failure; however, there are doubts as to whether or not the junta had a hand in his death. Already a legend in life, Neruda's death reverberated around the world. Pinochet had denied permission to transform Neruda's funeral into a public event. However, thousands of grieving Chileans disobeyed the curfew and crowded the streets.
Early years
Neftalí Reyes Basoalto was born on July 12, 1904 in Parral, Chile, a city in Linares Province in the Maule Region, some 350 km south of Santiago to
- José del Carmen Reyes Morales, a railway employee, and
- Rosa Basoalto, a school teacher who died two months after he was born.
Neruda and his father soon moved to Temuco, where his father married Trinidad Candia Marverde, a woman with whom he had a child nine years earlier, a boy named Rodolfo.[6] Neruda also grew up with his half-sister Laura, one of his father's children by another woman. On September 26, 1904 the young Neruda was christened "Neftalí", his late mother's middle name. In the winter of 1914, Neruda composed his first poems.

something started in my soul,
fever or forgotten wings,
and I made my own way,
deciphering
that fire
and wrote the first faint line,
faint without substance, pure
nonsense,
pure wisdom,
of someone who knows nothing,
and suddenly I saw
the heavens
unfastened
and open.

Neruda's father opposed his son's interest in writing and literature, but Neruda received encouragement from others, including future Nobel Prize winner Gabriela Mistral, who headed the local girls' school. On July 18, 1917, at the age of thirteen, he published his first work, an essay entitled Entusiasmo y perseverancia (Enthusiasm and Perseverance) in the local daily newspaper, La Mañana, signed Neftalí Reyes.[8] From 1918 to mid-1920 he published numerous poems such as "Mis ojos" ("My eyes") and essays in local magazines as Neftali Reyes. In 1919, he participated in the literary contest Juegos Florales del Maule where he won third place for his poem "Comunión ideal" or "Nocturno ideal". By mid-1920, when he adopted the pseudonym of Pablo Neruda, he was a published author of poetry, prose, and journalism. The young poet wanted to find a name that would mislead his father. "Neruda" originated from the Czech poet Jan Neruda. Years later, Pablo Neruda in recognition of the Czech poet, left a flower at the foot of his statue in Prague “Confieso que he vivido”. The first name Pablo is thought to be inspired by the French poet Paul Verlaine.
In 1921, at the age of 16, Neruda moved to Santiago[7] to study French at the Universidad de Chile with the intention of becoming a teacher, but soon Neruda was devoting himself full time to poetry. In 1923, his first volume of verse, Crepusculario (Book of Twilights), was published, followed the next year by Veinte poemas de amor y una canción desesperada (Twenty Love Poems and a Song of Despair),[7] a collection of love poems that was controversial for its eroticism, especially considering its author's young age. Both works were critically acclaimed and were translated into many languages. Over the decades, Veinte poemas would sell millions of copies and become Neruda's best-known work, though it did not go to a second edition until 1932.[7] By the age of 20, Neruda had established an international reputation as a poet, but was facing poverty.[7] In 1926, he published the collection Tentativa del hombre infinito (The trying of infinite man) and the novel Tentativa y su esperanza (The inhabitant and his hope).[9] In 1927, out of financial desperation, he took an honorary consulship in Rangoon, then a part of colonial Burma and a place of which he had never heard before.[9] Later, mired in isolation and loneliness, he worked stints in Colombo (Ceylon), Batavia (Java), and Singapore.[9] In Java he met and married his first wife, a Dutch bank employee named Maryka Antonieta Hagenaar Vogelzang. While on diplomatic service, Neruda read large amounts of poetry and experimented with many different poetic forms. He wrote the first two volumes of Residencia En La Tierra, which included many surrealistic poems.

Heinrich Theodor Böll (December 21, 1917 – July 16, 1985) was one of Germany's foremost post-World War II writers. Böll was awarded the Georg Büchner Prize in 1967 and the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1972.

Biography
Böll was born in Cologne, Germany, to a Catholic, pacifist family that later opposed the rise of Nazism. He refused to join the Hitler Youth during the 1930s[ He was apprenticed to a bookseller before studying German at the University of Cologne. Conscripted into the Wehrmacht, he served in France, Romania, Hungary and the Soviet Union, and was wounded four times before being captured by Americans in April 1945 and sent to a prisoner-of-war camp.[3]
Böll became a full-time writer at the age of 30. His first novel, Der Zug war pünktlich (The Train Was on Time), was published in 1949. Many other novels, short stories, radio plays and essay collections followed, and in 1972 he received the Nobel Prize for Literature. He was the first German-born author to receive this award since Nelly Sachs in 1966.
Works
His work has been translated into more than 30 languages, and he remains one of Germany's most widely read authors. His best-known works are Billiards at Half-past Nine, Und sagte kein einziges Wort, Das Brot der frühen Jahre, The Clown, Group Portrait with Lady, The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum, and The Safety Net.
Influences
Böll was deeply rooted in his hometown of Cologne, with its strong Roman Catholicism and its rather rough and drastic sense of humour. In the immediate post-war period, he was preoccupied with memories of the War and the effect it had—materially and psychologically—on the lives of ordinary people. He made them the heroes in his writing.
His villains are the figures of authority in government, business, and in the Church, whom he castigates, sometimes humorously, sometimes acidly, for what he perceived as their conformism, lack of courage, self-satisfied attitude and abuse of power. His simple style made him a favourite for German-language textbooks in Germany and abroad.
Importance of Cologne
- He was deeply affected by the Nazi takeover of Cologne, as they essentially exiled him in his own town.
- In addition, the destruction of Cologne as a result of the Allied bombing during World War II scarred him for life; the aftermath of the bombing is described in The Silent Angel.
Architecturally, the newly-rebuilt Cologne, prosperous once more, left him indifferent. (Böll seemed to be a pupil of William Morris – he let it be known that he would have preferred Cologne cathedral to be left unfinished, with the 14th-century wooden crane at the top, as it had stood in 1848).
- Throughout his life, he remained in close contact with the citizens of Cologne, rich and poor. When he was in hospital, the nurses often complained about the "low-life" people who came to see their friend Heinrich Böll.
Analysis
- His works have been dubbed "Trümmerliteratur"—the literature of the rubble.
- He was a leader of the German writers who tried to come to grips with the memory of War, the Nazis, and the Holocaust—and the guilt that came with them.
He lived with his wife in Cologne and in the Eifel region. However, he also spent time on Achill Island off the west coast of Ireland. His cottage there is now used as a guesthouse for international and Irish artists. He recorded some of his experiences in Ireland in his book Irisches Tagebuch (Irish Journal).
He was the president of the then West German P.E.N. and subsequently of the International P.E.N. organizations. He travelled frequently as a representative of the new, democratic Germany. His appearance and attitude were in complete contrast to the boastful, aggressive type of German which had become infamous all over the world during Hitler's reign. Böll was particularly successful in Eastern Europe, as he seemed to portray the dark side of capitalism in his books. His books were sold by the millions in the Soviet Union alone.[4] When Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the Soviet Union, he first took refuge in Heinrich Böll's Eifel cottage. In 1976, Böll demonstratively left the Catholic church, "without falling away from the faith".[5]
Heinrich Böll died in 1985 at the age of 67.
==
Late in the summer of 1939 I was conscripted into the German Army shortly before the outbreak of the war. I took part in the Second World War; in autumn 1940, briefly in France, from 1941 to 1942 (after a severe case of typhus), in the replacement units in Germany, from early 1942 until summer 1943, along the English Channel coast in France, between summer 1943 and autumn 1944, in the Soviet Union, Romania and Hungary, from spring 1945 on, for a few weeks in western Germany, where I was taken prisoner by the Americans, and interned until October 1945 in a camp in France, and then for a few weeks in October/November 1945, in an English camp in Belgium.
As early as December 1945, I accompanied my wife and a few relatives in their return from evacuation in the countryside to Cologne, where over the years we settled down in a destroyed house. I started to write again, while simultaneously working on repairing the destroyed house, I started my studies again - merely formally, because proof of occupation was necessary to obtain a food rationing card

Patrick Victor Martindale White (28 May 1912 – 30 September 1990), was an Australian author who is widely regarded as one of the most important English-language novelists of the 20th century. From 1935 until his death, he published 12 novels, two short-story collections and eight plays.
White's fiction employs humour, florid prose, shifting narrative vantage points and a stream of consciousness technique. In 1973, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature,[1] the only Australian to have been awarded the prize.
Childhood and adolescence

White was born in Knightsbridge, London, to an English-Australian father and an English mother. His family later moved to Sydney, Australia when he was six months old.
- As a child he lived in a flat with his sister, a nanny, and a maid, while his parents lived in an adjoining flat.
- At the age of four White developed asthma, a condition that had taken the life of his maternal grandfather.
- White's health was fragile throughout his childhood, which precluded his participation in many childhood activities.
He loved the theatre, which he first visited at an early age. This love was expressed at home when he performed private rites in the garden and danced for his mother’s friends.
- At the age of ten, White was sent to Tudor House School, a boarding school in the Southern Highlands of New South Wales, in an attempt to abate his asthma.
- It took him some time to adjust to the presence of other children.
At boarding school he started to write plays. Even at this early age, White wrote about palpably adult themes.
- In 1924, the boarding school ran into financial trouble and the headmaster suggested that White be sent to a public school in England, a suggestion his parents accepted.[citation needed]
- White struggled to adjust to his new surroundings at Cheltenham College, in Gloucestershire. He later described it as "a four-year prison sentence".
- White withdrew socially and had a limited circle of acquaintances. Occasionally, he would holiday with his parents at European locations, but their relationship remained distant.
While at school in London, White made one close friend, Ronald Waterall, an older boy who shared similar interests. White's biographer, David Marr, wrote that "the two men would walk, arm-in-arm, to London shows; and stand around stage doors crumbing for a glimpse of their favourite stars, giving a practical demonstration of a chorus girl's high kick ... with appropriate vocal accompaniment".
- When Waterall left school, White withdrew again. He asked his parents if he could leave school to become an actor. The parents compromised and allowed him to finish school early on the condition that he came home to Australia to try life on the land.
His parents felt that he should work on the land rather than become a writer, and hoped that his work as a jackaroo would temper his artistic ambitions.
White spent two years working as a stockman at Bolaro, a station of 73-square-kilometre (28 sq mi) near Adaminaby on the edge of the Snowy Mountains in south-eastern Australia. Although he grew to respect the land and his health improved, it was clear that he was not cut out for this life.
Travelling the world
From 1932 to 1935, White lived in England, studying French and German literature at King's College within Cambridge University.
His homosexuality took a toll on his first term academic performance, in part because he developed a romantic attraction to a young man who had come to King's College to become an Anglican priest. White dared not speak of his feelings for fear of losing the friendship and, like many homosexual men of that period, feared that his sexuality would doom him to a lonely life. Then one night, the student priest, after an awkward liaison with two women, admitted to White that women meant nothing to him sexually. This became White's first love affair.
During White's time at Cambridge he published a collection of poetry entitled The Ploughman and Other Poems, and wrote a play named Bread and Butter Women, which was later performed by an amateur group (which included his sister Suzanne) at the tiny Bryant's Playhouse in Sydney.[3] After being admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Arts in 1935, White briefly settled in London, where he lived in an area that was frequented by artists. Here, the young author thrived creatively for a time, writing several unpublished works and reworking Happy Valley, a novel that he had written while jackarooing. In 1937, White's father died, leaving him ten thousand pounds in inheritance. The fortune enabled him to write full-time in relative comfort. Two more plays followed before he succeeded in finding a publisher for Happy Valley. The novel was received well in London, but poorly in Australia. He began writing another novel, Nightside, but abandoned it before its completion after receiving negative comments—a decision that he later admitted regretting.
In 1936 White met the painter Roy de Maistre, 18 years his senior, who became an important influence in his life and work. The two men never became lovers, but remained firm friends. In Patrick White's own words "He became what I most needed, an intellectual and aesthetic mentor". They had many similarities. They were both homosexual; they both felt like outsiders in their own families; as a result they both had ambivalent feelings about their families and backgrounds, yet both maintained close and lifelong links with their families, particularly their mothers.

إيفند يونسون

Eyvind Johnson (29 July 1900 – 25 August 1976) was a Swedish writer and author. He became a member of the Swedish Academy in 1957 and shared the Nobel Prize in Literature with Harry Martinson in 1974 with the citation: for a narrative art, far-seeing in lands and ages, in the service of freedom.
Johnson was born Olof Edvin Verner Jonsson in Svartbjörnsbyn village in Överluleå parish, near the town of Boden in Norrbotten. In Boden they show the small house where he grew up.
His most noted works include Här har du ditt liv! (Here's Your Life) (1935), Strändernas svall (Return to Ithaca) (1946) and Hans Nådes Tid (The Days of his Grace) (1960).

Controversy
The choice for Johnson and Harry Martinson in 1974 was controversial as both were on the Nobel panel themselves and Graham Greene, Vladimir Nabokov, Saul Bellow and Jorge Luis Borges were the favoured candidates that year.[1]
==
Born in 1900 at Svartbjörnsbyn near Boden in the north of Sweden.

Parents, Olof Petter J., stonecutter from Värmland, and Cevia Gustafsdotter from Blekinge. There were six children in the family, of whom E.J. was the next youngest.
- His father fell ill with silicosis about 1904,
- and E.J. was taken care of by his childless aunt and her husband, stonecutter Anders Johan Rost.
- At the age of fourteen he left his foster-parents, of whom he was very fond, to look for work near the home where he was born.
He did many different kinds of work, first at the timber sorting town near Sävast on the Lule River, then at the Björn brickworks. Between 1915 and 1919 he was a sawmill worker, a ticket seller and usher at a cinema, and a projectionist; then assistant to plumbers and electricians. In 1918 he was a locomotive cleaner at the engine sheds in Boden, and for a time during the winter, a stoker on cargo trains between Boden and Haparanda. Again, sawmill worker for a while, then hay-presser, then out of work. Borrowing money, he travelled down to Stockholm, where he got work at LM Ericsson's big workshop in Tulegatan. The metalworkers' strike broke out in 1920 and he tried to live on what he wrote, with very meagre results. At the same time, together with some other young budding writers, he founded the literary magazine Vår Nutid (Our Present Day), which appeared in six issues. He then became a member the society of future writers which called itself De gröna (The Green Ones).

From the autumn of 1920 to the autumn of 1921, together with two or three friends, he worked at haymaking and timber-felling on a small farm in Uppland, where he had spare time and peace in which to read and write.

In the autumn of 1921 he went to Germany - by cargo boat to Kiel, by train to Berlin, and a few months later he continued via the Rhineland to Paris, where he earned his living writing for Swedish papers, as a cement worker, and then as a dishwasher at a big hotel near the Gare du Nord. Then back to Berlin, where he remained until the autumn of 1923, when he returned home to Sweden.